Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.17wmf1 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Portal Portal talk Book Book talk 10 381202555 2010-08-26T22:38:36Z OlEnglish 7181920 [[Help:Reverting|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/76.28.186.133|76.28.186.133]] ([[User talk:76.28.186.133|talk]]) to last version by Gurch #REDIRECT [[Computer accessibility]] {{R from CamelCase}} 12 435394441 2011-06-21T03:36:39Z Eduen 7527773 /* Organised labour */ {{Redirect|Anarchist|the fictional character|Anarchist (comics)}} {{Redirect|Anarchists}} {{Good article}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Anarchism sidebar}} '''Anarchism''' is a [[political philosophy]] which considers the [[state (polity)|state]] undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful, and instead promotes a [[stateless society]], or [[anarchy]].<ref name="definition"> {{Cite journal|last=Malatesta|first=Errico|title=Towards Anarchism|journal=MAN!|publisher=International Group of San Francisco|location=Los Angeles|oclc=3930443|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm|authorlink=Errico Malatesta}} {{Cite journal|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070514.wxlanarchist14/BNStory/lifeWork/home/ |title=Working for The Man |journal=[[The Globe and Mail]] |accessdate=2008-04-14 |last=Agrell |first=Siri |date=2007-05-14}} {{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117285|title=Anarchism|year=2006|work=Encyclop0x00E6dia Britannica|publisher=Encyclop0x00E6dia Britannica Premium Service|accessdate=2006-08-29}} {{Cite journal|year=2005|title=Anarchism|journal=The Shorter [[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|page=14|quote=Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable.}} The following sources cite anarchism as a political philosophy: {{Cite book| last = Mclaughlin | first = Paul | title = Anarchism and Authority | publisher = Ashgate | location = Aldershot | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-7546-6196-2 |page=59}} {{Cite book| last = Johnston | first = R. | title = The Dictionary of Human Geography | publisher = Blackwell Publishers | location = Cambridge | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-631-20561-6 |page=24}}</ref><ref name=slevin>Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics''. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.</ref> Anarchists seek to diminish or even abolish [[authority]] in the conduct of human relations,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.panarchy.org/ward/organization.1966.html|last=Ward|first=Colin|year=1966|title=Anarchism as a Theory of Organization|accessdate=1 March 2010}}</ref> but widely disagree on what additional criteria are essential to anarchism. According to ''[[The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]'', "there is no single defining position that all anarchists hold, and those considered anarchists at best share a certain [[family resemblance]]."<ref name=oxcom>"Anarchism." ''[[The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]'', [[Oxford University Press]], 2007, p. 31.</ref> "In broad terms, anarchism is the rejection of coercion and domination in all forms, including that of the priests and the plutocrats.... The anarchist...abominates all forms of authoritarianism, and he is the enemy of parasitism, exploitation, and oppression. The anarchist frees himself from all that is sacred and carries out a vast program of desecration."<ref>Mark Mirabello. ''Handbook for Rebels and Outlaws''. Oxford, England: Mandrake of Oxford, 2009, p. 13.</ref> There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sylvan |first=Richard |chapter=Anarchism |title=A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy |editors=Goodwin, Robert E. and Pettit |publisher=Philip. Blackwell Publishing |year=1995 |page=231}}</ref> [[Anarchist schools of thought]] can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism.<ref name=slevin/> Strains of anarchism have been divided into the categories of [[social anarchism|social]] and [[individualist anarchism]] or similar dual classifications.<ref name="black dict">[[Geoffrey Ostergaard|Ostergaard, Geoffrey]]. "Anarchism". ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.</ref><ref name=socind>{{Cite book|authorlink=Peter Kropotkin |last=Kropotkin |first=Peter |title=Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |year=2002 |page=5|isbn=0-486-41955-X}}{{Cite journal|author=R.B. Fowler|title=The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought|year=1972|journal=Western Political Quarterly|volume=25|issue=4|pages=7380x2013752|doi=10.2307/446800|publisher=University of Utah|jstor=446800}}</ref> Anarchism is often considered to be a radical [[left-wing]] ideology,<ref name=brooks>{{Cite book|quote=Usually considered to be an extreme left-wing ideology, anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the libertarians and anarcho-capitalists of today |last=Brooks |first=Frank H. |year=1994 |title=The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (18810x20131908) |publisher=Transaction Publishers |page=xi|isbn=1-56000-132-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Joseph Kahn|title= Anarchism, the Creed That Won't Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement |year=2000|journal=[[The New York Times]]|issue=5 August}}{{Cite journal|author=Colin Moynihan |title=Book Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway|year=2007|journal=New York Times|issue=16 April}}</ref> and much of [[anarchist economics]] and [[anarchist law|anarchist legal philosophy]] reflect [[anti-statism|anti-statist]] interpretations of [[anarcho-communism|communism]], [[collectivist anarchism|collectivism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalism]] or [[participatory economics]]. However, anarchism has always included an [[Individualist anarchism|individualist strain]] supporting a [[market economy]] and [[private property]], or morally unrestrained [[egoist anarchism|egoism]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stringham |first=Edward |chapter= |title=[http://www.amazon.com/dp/1412805791 Anarchy and the Law. The Political Economy of Choice.] |editors=Stringham, Edward |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=2007 |page=720}}</ref><ref>[[Jan Narveson|Narveson, Jan]] (2002). [http://books.google.es/books?id=a6hBXZOepB4C&pg=PA186&dq=free-market+anarchism&as_brr=3 Respecting Persons in Theory and Practice. Chapter 11: Anarchist's Case]. "To see this, of course, we must expound the moral outlook underlying anarchism. To do this we must first make an important distinction between two general options in anarchist theory [...] The two are what we may call, respectively, the socialist versus the free-market, or capitalist, versions."</ref><ref name="tormey">Tormey, Simon, Anti-Capitalism, A Beginner's Guide, Oneworld Publications, 2004, pp. 1180x2013119.</ref> Some individualist anarchists are also [[socialist]]s<ref>"This stance puts him squarely in the libertarian socialist tradition and, unsurprisingly, [[Benjamin Tucker|(Benjamin) Tucker]] referred to himself many times as a socialist and considered his philosophy to be "Anarchistic socialism." "''[[An Anarchist FAQ]]''by Various Authors</ref><ref>"Because revolution is the fire of our will and a need of our solitary minds; it is an obligation of the libertarian aristocracy. To create new ethical values. To create new aesthetic values. To communalize material wealth. To individualize spiritual wealth." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Renzo_Novatore__Toward_the_Creative_Nothing.html [[Renzo Novatore]]. ''Toward the Creative Nothing'']</ref> while some anarcho-communists are also individualists.<ref name="bobblack">[[Post-left anarchy|Post-left]] anarcho-communist [[Bob Black]] after analysing [[Insurrectionary anarchism|insurrectionary]] anarcho-communist [[Luigi Galleani]]'s view on anarcho-communism went as far as saying that "communism is the final fulfillment of [[individualism]].... The apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on a misunderstanding of both.... Subjectivity is also objective: the individual really is subjective. It is nonsense to speak of 'emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual'.... You may as well speak of prioritizing the chicken over the egg. Anarchy is a 'method of individualization'. It aims to combine the greatest individual development with the greatest communal unity."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Bob_Black__Nightmares_of_Reason.html#toc22 Bob Black. ''Nightmares of Reason''.]</ref><ref>"Modern Communists are more individualistic than Stirner. To them, not merely religion, morality, family and State are spooks, but property also is no more than a spook, in whose name the individual is enslaved - and how enslaved!...Communism thus creates a basis for the liberty and Eigenheit of the individual. I am a Communist because I am an Individualist. Fully as heartily the Communists concur with Stirner when he puts the word take in place of demand - that leads to the dissolution of property, to expropriation. Individualism and Communism go hand in hand."[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/goldman/ME/mev2n3.html#142 [[Max Baginski]]. "Stirner: The Ego and His Own" on ''[[Mother Earth (magazine)|Mother Earth]]''. Vol. 2. No. 3 MAY, 1907]</ref> The position known as [[anarchism without adjectives]] insists on "recognising the right of other tendencies to the name 'anarchist' while, obviously, having their own preferences for specific types of anarchist theory and their own arguments why other types are flawed."<ref>[http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/secA3.html#seca38 A.3 What types of anarchism are there?]. in [[An Anarchist FAQ]]</ref> The central tendency of anarchism as a mass social movement has been represented by [[Anarchist communism|anarcho-communism]] and [[anarcho-syndicalism]], with [[individualist anarchism]] being primarily a literary phenomenon<ref>[[Alexandre Skirda|Skirda, Alexandre]]. ''Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968''. AK Press, 2002, p. 191.</ref> which nevertheless did have an impact on the bigger currents<ref>Catalan historian Xavier Diez reports that the Spanish individualist anarchist press was widely read by members of [[anarcho-communist]] groups and by members of the [[anarcho-syndicalist]] trade union [[Confederaci0x00F3n Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]]. There were also the cases of prominent individualist anarchists such as [[Federico Urales]] and [[Miguel Gimenez Igualada]] who were members of the [[Confederaci0x00F3n Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] and J. Elizalde who was a founding member and first secretary of the [[Iberian Anarchist Federation]]. Xavier Diez. ''El anarquismo individualista en Espa0x00F1a: 1923-1938.'' ISBN 978-84-96044-87-6</ref> and individualists also participated in large anarchist organizations.<ref>Within the [[Synthesis anarchism|synthesist]] anarchist organization, the [[F0x00E9d0x00E9ration Anarchiste]], there existed an individualist anarchist tendency alongside anarcho-communist and anarchosyndicalist currents. Individualist anarchists participating inside the [[F0x00E9d0x00E9ration Anarchiste]] included Charles-Auguste Bontemps, Georges Vincey and Andr0x00E9 Arru. [http://public.federation-anarchiste.org/IMG/pdf/Cedric_Guerin_Histoire_du_mvt_libertaire_1950_1970.pdf "Pens0x00E9e et action des anarchistes en France : 1950-1970" by C0x00E9dric GU0x00C9RIN]</ref><ref>In Italy in 1945, during the Founding Congress of the [[Italian Anarchist Federation]], there was a group of individualist anarchists led by Cesare Zaccaria who was an important anarchist of the time.[http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/73n6nh Cesare Zaccaria (19 August 1897-October 1961) by Pier Carlo Masini and Paul Sharkey]</ref> Some anarchists [[non-aggression principle|oppose all forms of aggression]], supporting [[self-defense]] or [[non-violence]] ([[anarcho-pacifism]]),<ref name="ppu.org.uk">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad8.html#anarch%20and%20violence |title="Resiting the Nation State, the pacifist and anarchist tradition" by Geoffrey Ostergaard |publisher=Ppu.org.uk |date=1945-08-06 |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref><ref name="Anarchism 1962">[[George Woodcock]]. ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (1962)</ref> while others have supported the use of some [[coercion|coercive]] measures, including violent [[revolution]] and [[propaganda of the deed]], on the path to an anarchist society.<ref>Fowler, R.B. "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought." ''The Western Political Quarterly'', Vol. 25, No. 4. (December, 1972), pp. 7430x2013744.</ref> ==Etymology and terminology== {{Related articles|Anarchist terminology}} The term ''[[wikt:anarchism|anarchism]]'' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] 0x1F040x03BD0x03B10x03C10x03C70x03BF0x03C2, ''anarchos'', meaning "without rulers",<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anarchy Anarchy]. [[Merriam-Webster]] online.</ref><ref>[[Henry Liddell|Liddell, Henry George]], & [[Robert Scott (philologist)|Scott, Robert]], "[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]"[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%237439].</ref> from the prefix 0x1F000x03BD- (''an-'', "without") + 0x1F000x03C10x03C70x03AE (''arch0x00EA'', "sovereignty, realm, magistracy")<ref>{{Cite book|last=Liddell |first=Henry George |coauthors=Scott, Robert |title=A Greek-English Lexicon |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2315894|isbn=0-19-910205-8}}</ref> + -0x03B90x03C30x03BC0x03CC0x03C2 (''-ismos'', from the [[Suffix (linguistics)|suffix]] -0x03B90x03B60x03B50x03B90x03BD, ''-izein'' "-izing"). There is some ambiguity with the use of the terms "[[libertarianism]]" and "libertarian" in writings about anarchism. Since the 1890s from France,<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Short History of Anarchism |last=Nettlau |first=Max |authorlink=Max Nettlau |year=1996 |publisher=Freedom Press |isbn=0-900384-89-1 |page=162}}</ref> the term "libertarianism" has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States;<ref>Russell, Dean. [http://www.boogieonline.com/revolution/politics/name.html ''Who is a Libertarian?''], [[Foundation for Economic Education]], "Ideas on Liberty," May, 1955.</ref> its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States.<ref> * Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press 2004 p. 62 * Goodway, David. Anarchists Seed Beneath the Snow. Liverpool Press. 2006, p. 4 * MacDonald, Dwight & Wreszin, Michael. Interviews with [[Dwight Macdonald]]. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. p. 82 * Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv * Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126 * [[George Woodcock|Woodcock, George]]. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press, 2004. (Uses the terms interchangeably, such as on page 10) * [[Alexandre Skirda|Skirda, Alexandre]]. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002. p. 183. * Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. See Sharp Press, 2001, page 9.</ref> Accordingly, "[[libertarian socialism]]" is sometimes used as a synonym for [[socialist anarchism]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Perlin |first=Terry M. |title=Contemporary Anarchism |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1979 |page=40|isbn=0-87855-097-6}}</ref><ref>Noam Chomsky, Carlos Peregr0x00EDn Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, 2004, p. 739.</ref> to distinguish it from "individualist libertarianism" (individualist anarchism). On the other hand, some use "[[libertarianism]]" to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as "[[libertarian anarchism]]".<ref>Morris, Christopher. 1992. ''An Essay on the Modern State''. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. (Using "libertarian anarchism" synonymously with "individualist anarchism" when referring to individualist anarchism that supports a [[market economy|market society]]).</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Burton |first=Daniel C. |title= [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/polin/polin168.pdf Libertarian anarchism] |publisher=[[Libertarian Alliance]] |year= |page=}}</ref> ==Origins== {{Main|History of anarchism}} [[File:WilliamGodwin.jpg|left|thumb|[[William Godwin]], "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work".<ref name="EB1910" />]] Anarchist themes can be found in the works of [[Taoism|Taoist]] sages [[Laozi]],<ref name="EB1910">Peter Kropotkin, [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/kropotkin/britanniaanarchy.html "Anarchism"], ''[[Encyclop0x00E6dia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclop0x00E6dia Britannica]]'' 1910.</ref> [[Zhuangzi]] and Bao Jingyan [http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-one-from-anarchy-to-anarchism-300ce-1939/]. [[Zhuangzi]] wrote, ''"A petty thief is put in jail. A great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation,"''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf|format=PDF|title=Concepts of the role of intellectuals in social change toward laissez faire|author=[[Murray Rothbard]]|accessdate=2008-12-28}}</ref> while Bao Jingyan said that as soon as "the relationship between lord and subject is established, hearts become daily filled with evil designs, until the manacled criminals sullenly doing forced labour in the mud and the dust are full of mutinous thoughts." [[Diogenes of Sinope]] and the [[Cynic]]s, their contemporary [[Zeno of Citium]], the founder of [[Stoicism]], also introduced similar topics.<ref name="EB1910" /><ref>{{iep|c/cynics.htm|Cynics|Julie Piering}}</ref> The term "anarchist" first entered the English language in 1642, during the [[English Civil War]], as a [[Pejorative|term of abuse]], used by [[Cavalier|Royalists]] against their [[Roundhead]] opponents.<ref name=bbc/> By the time of the [[French Revolution]] some, such as the ''[[Enrag0x00E9s]]'', began to use the term positively,<ref>Sheehan, Sean. ''Anarchism'', London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. p. 85.</ref> in opposition to [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobin]] centralisation of power, seeing "revolutionary government" as [[oxymoron]]ic.<ref name=bbc/> By the turn of the 19th century, the English word "anarchism" had lost its initial negative connotation.<ref name=bbc/> Modern anarchism sprang from the secular or religious thought of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], particularly [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'s arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.<ref name=Encarta>"Anarchism", ''[[Encarta]] Online Encyclopedia'' 2006 (UK version).</ref> From this climate [[William Godwin]] developed what many consider the first expression of [[anarchist schools of thought|modern anarchist thought]].<ref name="godwinsep" /> Godwin was, according to [[Peter Kropotkin]], "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work",<ref name="EB1910" /> while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early [[Edmund Burke]].<ref>Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to [[Edmund Burke]]'s '' [[A Vindication of Natural Society]]''. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in Burke's ''Vindication of Natural Society''; a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence..." 0x2013 footnote, Ch. 2 ''[[Political Justice]]'' by William Godwin.</ref> [[Benjamin Tucker]] instead credits [[Josiah Warren]], an American who promoted stateless and [[voluntary community|voluntary communities]] where all goods and services were [[privatization|private]], with being "the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as Anarchism."<ref>''Liberty'' XIV (December, 1900:1).</ref> The first to describe himself as an anarchist was [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]],<ref name=bbc>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20061207.shtml "Anarchism"], [[BBC Radio 4]] program, [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]], Thursday 7 December 2006. Hosted by [[Melvyn Bragg]] of the BBC, with John Keane, Professor of Politics at [[University of Westminster]], [[Ruth Kinna]], Senior Lecturer in Politics at [[Loughborough University]], and [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]], philosopher and historian.</ref> a French philosopher and politician, which led some to call him the founder of modern anarchist theory.<ref>Daniel Guerin, ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice'' (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970).</ref> ==Social movement== Anarchism as a [[social movement]] has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. Its classical period, which scholars demarcate as from 1860 to 1939, is associated with the working-class movements of the 19th century and the [[Spanish Civil War]]-era struggles against [[fascism]].<ref>Jonathan Purkis and James Bowen, "Introduction: Why Anarchism Still Matters", in Jonathan Purkis and James Bowen (eds), ''Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age'' (Manchester: [[Manchester University Press]], 2004), p. 3.</ref> ===The First International=== {{Main|International Workingmen's Association}} [[Image:Bakuninfull.jpg|thumb|Collectivist anarchist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] opposed the [[Marxist]] aim of [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] in favour of universal rebellion, and allied himself with the federalists in the First International before his expulsion by the Marxists.<ref name=bbc/>]] In Europe, harsh reaction followed the [[revolutions of 1848]], during which ten countries had experienced brief or long-term social upheaval as groups carried out nationalist uprisings. After most of these attempts at systematic change ended in failure, conservative elements took advantage of the divided groups of socialists, anarchists, liberals, and nationalists, to prevent further revolt.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Breunig |first=Charles |title=The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 17890x20131850 |year=1977 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |location=New York, N.Y |isbn=0-393-09143-0 }}</ref> In 1864 the [[International Workingmen's Association]] (sometimes called the "First International") united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]],<ref>{{Cite book| last = Blin | first = Arnaud | title = The History of Terrorism | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-520-24709-4 |page=116}}</ref> [[Blanquism|Blanquists]], [[Philadelphes]], English trade unionists, [[socialists]] and [[social democrats]]. Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organization. [[Karl Marx]] became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualists]], opposed Marx's [[state socialism]], advocating political [[abstentionism]] and small property holdings.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Dodson | first = Edward | title = The Discovery of First Principles: Volume 2 | publisher = Authorhouse | page=312 | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-595-24912-4 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=harv | location = London | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=187}}</ref> In 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the [[League of Peace and Freedom]] (LPF), Russian revolutionary [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and his [[collectivist anarchism|collectivist anarchist]] associates joined the First International (which had decided not to get involved with the LPF).<ref>{{Cite book| last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = Routledge and Kegan Paul | location = London | year = 1980 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=304}}</ref> They allied themselves with the [[federalist]] socialist sections of the International,<ref>{{Cite book| last = Bak | first = J0x01F9os | title = Liberty and Socialism | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | location = Lanham | year = 1991 | isbn = 0-8476-7680-3 |page=236}}</ref> who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property. At first, the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Engel | first = Barbara | title = Mothers and Daughters | publisher = Northwestern University Press | location = Evanston | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-8101-1740-1 |page=140}}</ref> Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as [[centralism|centralist]] and predicted that, if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the [[ruling class]] they had fought against.<ref name="bakuninmarx" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bakunin|first=Mikhail|authorlink=Mikhail Bakunin|origyear=1873|year=1991|title=Statism and Anarchy |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-36973-8}}</ref> In 1872, the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the [[Hague Congress (1872)|Hague Congress]], where Bakunin and [[James Guillaume]] were expelled from the International and its headquarters were transferred to New York. In response, the federalist sections formed their own International at the [[Anarchist St. Imier International|St. Imier Congress]], adopting a revolutionary anarchist program.<ref name=Graham-05>Graham, Robert '[http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm ''Anarchism''] (Montreal: Black Rose Books 2005) ISBN 1-55164-251-4.</ref> ===Organised labour=== {{Main|Anarcho-syndicalism|International Workers' Association|Anarchism in Spain|Spanish Revolution}} The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organization of labor."<ref>Resolutions from the St. Imier Congress, in ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas'', Vol. 1, p. 100 [http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm]</ref> In 1886, the [[Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions]] (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada unanimously set 1 May 1886, as the date by which the [[Eight-hour day|eight-hour work day]] would become standard.<ref name=foner/> In response, unions across the [[United States]] prepared a [[general strike]] in support of the event.<ref name=foner/> On 3 May, in Chicago, a fight broke out when [[strikebreaker]]s attempted to cross the picket line, and two workers died when police opened fire upon the crowd.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Avrich |first=Paul |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |year=1984 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=0-691-00600-8 |page=190}}</ref> The next day, 4 May, anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |page=193 |isbn=0-691-04711-1 }}</ref> A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing an officer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.odmp.org/officer/3972-patrolman-mathias-j.-degan |title=Patrolman Mathias J. Degan |accessdate=2008-01-19 |publisher=The Officer Down Memorial Page, Inc }}</ref> In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other.<ref>''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', 27 June 1886, quoted in {{Cite book|last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |page=209 |isbn=0-691-04711-1 }}</ref> Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed.<ref name='the bomb'>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chicagohistory.org/dramas/act2/act2.htm |title=Act II: Let Your Tragedy Be Enacted Here |accessdate=2008-01-19 |year=2000 |work=The Dramas of Haymarket |publisher=Chicago Historical Society }}</ref> Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organisers of the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities among the labour movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution. The incident became known as the [[Haymarket affair]], and was a setback for the labour movement and the struggle for the eight hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organise for the eight hour day was made.The event also had the secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Foner |title=May Day |page=42 |isbn=0-7178-0624-3 }}</ref> Although it had initially been conceived as a once-off event, by the following year the celebration of [[International Workers' Day]] on [[May Day]] had become firmly established as an international worker's holiday.<ref name=foner>{{Cite book| last = Foner | first = Philip Sheldon | title = May day: a short history of the international workers' holiday, 18860x20131986 | publisher = International Publishers | location = New York | year = 1986 | isbn = 0-7178-0624-3 |page=56}}</ref> [[Image:ChicagoAnarchists.jpg|thumb|A sympathetic engraving by [[Walter Crane]] of the executed "Anarchists of Chicago" after the [[Haymarket affair]]. The Haymarket affair is generally considered the most significant event for the origin of international [[May Day]] observances]] In 1907, the [[International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam]] gathered delegates from 14 different countries, among which important figures of the anarchist movement, including [[Errico Malatesta]], [[Pierre Monatte]], [[Luigi Fabbri]], [[Beno0x00EEt Broutchoux]], [[Emma Goldman]], [[Rudolf Rocker]], and [[Christiaan Cornelissen]]. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement, [[popular education]] issues, the [[general strike]] or [[antimilitarism]]. A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and [[syndicalism]] (or [[trade union]]ism). Malatesta and Monatte were in particular disagreement themselves on this issue, as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would create the conditions of a [[social revolution]], while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient.<ref>[http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=225 Extract of Malatesta's declaration] {{fr icon}}</ref> He thought that the trade-union movement was [[reformism|reformist]] and even [[Conservatism|conservative]], citing as essentially bourgeois and anti-worker the phenomenon of professional union officials. Malatesta warned that the syndicalists aims were in perpetuating syndicalism itself, whereas anarchists must always have anarchy as their end and consequently refrain from committing to any particular method of achieving it.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Skirda | first = Alexandre | title = [[Facing the Enemy|Facing the enemy: a history of anarchist organization from Proudhon to May 1968]] | publisher = [[A. K. Press]] | year = 2002 | isbn = 1-902593-19-7 |page=89 }}</ref> The [[Federaci0x00F3n Anarquista Ib0x00E9rica|Spanish Workers Federation]] in 1881 was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement; anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most successful was the [[Confederaci0x00F3n Nacional del Trabajo]] (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics, attracting 1.58 million members at one point and playing a major role in the [[Spanish Civil War]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beevor |first=Antony |authorlink=Antony Beevor |year=2006 |title=The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 19360x20131939 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-297-84832-5 |page=24 }}</ref> The CNT was affiliated with the [[International Workers Association]], a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America. In Latin America in particular "The anarchists quickly became active in organizing craft and industrial workers throughout South and Central America, and until the early 1920s most of the trade unions in [[Anarchism in Mexico|Mexico]], [[Anarchism in Brazil|Brazil]], Peru, Chile, and Argentina were anarcho-syndicalist in general outlook; the prestige of the Spanish C.N.T. as a revolutionary organization was undoubtedly to a great extent responsible for this situation. The largest and most militant of these organizations was the [[Federaci0x00F3n Obrera Regional Argentina]]...it grew quickly to a membership of nearly a quarter of a million, which dwarfed the rival socialdemocratic unions."<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/> The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the [[Confederaci0x00F3n General del Trabajo]] (CGT) and the [[Confederaci0x00F3n Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]]. CGT membership was estimated to be around 100,000 for 2003.<ref>Carley, Mark "Trade union membership 19930x20132003" (International:SPIRE Associates 2004).</ref> Other active syndicalist movements include in Sweden the [[Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden]] and the [[Swedish Anarcho-syndicalist Youth Federation]]; the CNT-AIT in France<ref>[http://www.cnt-ait-fr.org/CNT-AIT/ACCUEIL.html%20Website%20of%20the%20Conf0x00E9d0x00E9ration%20Nationale%20du%20Travail%20-%20Association%20Internationale%20des%20Travailleurs http://www.cnt-ait-fr.org/CNT-AIT/ACCUEIL.html Website of the Conf0x00E9d0x00E9ration Nationale du Travail - Association Internationale des Travailleurs]</ref>; the [[Unione Sindacale Italiana|Union Sindicale Italiana]] in Italy; in the US [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]] and the UK [[Solidarity Federation]]. The revolutionary industrial unionist [[Industrial Workers of the World]], claiming 2,000 paying members, and the [[International Workers Association]], an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International, also remain active. ===Propaganda of the deed and illegalism=== {{Main|Propaganda of the deed|Illegalism|Expropriative anarchism}} [[Image:Lugi Gallean2.jpg|180px|left|thumb|[[Italian-American]] anarchist [[Luigi Galleani]]. His followers, known as Galleanists, carried out a series of bombings and assassination attempts from 1914 to 1932 in what they saw as attacks on 'tyrants' and 'enemies of the people']] Some anarchists, such as [[Johann Most]], advocated publicizing violent acts of retaliation against counter-revolutionaries because "we preach not only action in and for itself, but also action as propaganda."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/most/actionprop.html |title="Action as Propaganda" by Johann Most, July 25, 1885 |publisher=Dwardmac.pitzer.edu |date=2003-04-21 |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> By the 1880s, the slogan "propaganda of the deed" had begun to be used both within and outside of the anarchist movement to refer to individual bombings, [[regicide]]s and [[tyrannicide]]s. From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism and illegal 0x2018[[Confiscation|expropriations]]0x2019."<ref>[http://www.zabalaza.net/theory/txt_anok_comm_ap.htm "Anarchist-Communism" by Alain Pengam]</ref> [[Illegalism]] as a practice emerged and within it "The acts of the anarchist bombers and assassins ("[[propaganda by the deed]]") and the anarchist burglars ("[[individual reappropriation]]") expressed their desperation and their personal, violent rejection of an intolerable society. Moreover, they were clearly meant to be exemplary , invitations to revolt.".<ref name="illegalism">[http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm "The "illegalists" by Doug Imrie. From "Anarchy: a Journal Of Desire Armed" , Fall-Winter, 1994-95]</ref> France's [[Bonnot Gang]] was the most famous group to embrace illegalism. However, as soon as 1887, important figures in the anarchist movement distanced themselves from such individual acts. [[Peter Kropotkin]] thus wrote that year in ''Le R0x00E9volt0x00E9'' that "a structure based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite".<ref>quoted in Billington, James H. 1998. ''Fire in the minds of men: origins of the revolutionary faith'' New Jersey: Transaction Books, p 417.</ref> A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favor of collective revolutionary action, for example through the [[trade union]] movement. The [[anarcho-syndicalism|anarcho-syndicalist]], [[Fernand Pelloutier]], argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labor movement on the basis that anarchism could do very well without "the individual dynamiter."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm |title=Table Of Contents |publisher=Blackrosebooks.net |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> [[Political repression|State repression]] (including the infamous 1894 French ''[[lois sc0x00E9l0x00E9rates]]'') of the anarchist and [[labor movement]]s following the few successful bombings and assassinations may have contributed to the abandonment of these kinds of tactics, although reciprocally state repression, in the first place, may have played a role in these isolated acts. The dismemberment of the French [[socialist movement]], into many groups and, following the suppression of the 1871 [[Paris Commune]], the execution and exile of many ''[[communards]]'' to [[penal colonies]], favored individualist political expression and acts.<ref>Historian [[Benedict Anderson]] thus writes: <blockquote> "In March 1871 the Commune took power in the abandoned city and held it for two months. Then [[Adolphe Thiers|Versailles]] seized the moment to attack and, in one horrifying week, executed roughly 20,000 Communards or suspected sympathizers, a number higher than those killed in the recent war or during [[Robespierre]]'s '[[Reign of Terror|Terror]]' of 17930x20131794. More than 7,500 were jailed or deported to places like New Caledonia. Thousands of others fled to Belgium, England, Italy, Spain and the United States. In 1872, stringent laws were passed that ruled out all possibilities of organizing on the left. Not till 1880 was there a general amnesty for exiled and imprisoned Communards. Meanwhile, the Third Republic found itself strong enough to renew and reinforce [[Napoleon III of France|Louis Napoleon]]'s imperialist expansion0x2013 in Indochina, Africa, and Oceania. Many of France's leading intellectuals and artists had participated in the Commune ([[Gustave Courbet|Courbet]] was its quasi-minister of culture, [[Arthur Rimbaud|Rimbaud]] and [[Pissarro]] were active propagandists) or were sympathetic to it. The ferocious repression of 1871 and thereafter, was probably the key factor in alienating these milieux from the Third Republic and stirring their sympathy for its victims at home and abroad." (in {{Cite news|author=Benedict Anderson |title=In the World-Shadow of Bismarck and Nobel |publisher=[[New Left Review]]|date=July -August 2004|url=http://newleftreview.org/?view=2519}}) </blockquote> According to some analysts, in [[History of Germany since 1945|post-war Germany]], the prohibition of the [[Communist Party of Germany|Communist Party]] (KDP) and thus of institutional far-left political organization may also, in the same manner, have played a role in the creation of the [[Red Army Faction]].</ref> Numerous heads of state were assassinated between 1881 and 1914 by members of the anarchist movement. For example, U.S. [[William McKinley|President McKinley]]'s assassin [[Leon Czolgosz]] claimed to have been influenced by anarchist and [[feminist]] [[Emma Goldman]]. Bombings were associated in the media with anarchists because [[international terrorism]] arose during this time period with the widespread distribution of dynamite. This image remains to this day. Propaganda of the deed was abandoned by the vast majority of the anarchist movement after [[World War I]] (19140x20131918) and the [[1917 October Revolution]]. ===Russian Revolution=== {{Main|Anarchism in Russia|Russian Revolution (1917)}} [[Image:Makhno group.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nestor Makhno]] with members of the anarchist [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]]]] Anarchists participated alongside the [[Bolshevik]]s in both [[February Revolution|February]] and [[October Revolution|October revolutions]], and were initially enthusiastic about the Bolshevik revolution.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Dirlik | first = Arif | title = Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 1991 | isbn = 0-520-07297-9 }}</ref> However, the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict that culminated in the 1921 [[Kronstadt rebellion]] which the new government repressed. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks; the anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to the [[Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite book| last = Avrich | first = Paul | title = The Russian Anarchists | publisher = AK Press | location = Stirling | year = 2006 | isbn = 1-904859-48-8 |page=204}}</ref> There, in the [[Free Territory (Ukraine)|Free Territory]], they fought in the [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] against the [[White movement|Whites]] (a grouping of monarchists and other opponents of the October Revolution) and then the Bolsheviks as part of the [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]] led by [[Nestor Makhno]], who established an anarchist society in the region for a number of months. Expelled American anarchists [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising, before they left Russia. Both wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia, criticizing the amount of control the Bolsheviks exercised. For them, [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]]'s predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of the new "socialist" Marxist state would become a new elite had proved all too true.<ref name="bakuninmarx">"[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bakunin/works/1872/karl-marx.htm On the International Workingmen's Association and Karl Marx]" in ''Bakunin on Anarchy'', translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971.</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last = Goldman | first = Emma | title = [[My Disillusionment in Russia]] |chapter=Preface |page=xx | publisher = Dover Publications | location = New York | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-486-43270-X |quote= My critic further charged me with believing that "had the Russians made the Revolution 0x00E0 la Bakunin instead of 0x00E0 la Marx" the result would have been different and more satisfactory. I plead guilty to the charge. In truth, I not only believe so; I am certain of it.}}</ref> The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; [[Communist party|Communist parties]] grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, for example, members of the major syndicalist movements of the [[Conf0x00E9d0x00E9ration g0x00E9n0x00E9rale du travail|CGT]] and [[Industrial Workers of the World|IWW]] left the organizations and joined the [[Comintern|Communist International]].<ref>{{Cite book| editor1-last = Drachkovitch | editor1-first = Milorad M. |first=Max |last=Nomad |contribution=The Anarchist Tradition |title = Revolutionary Internationals 1864 1943 | publisher = Stanford University Press |page=88 | year = 1966 | isbn = 0-8047-0293-4 }}</ref> In Paris, the [[Dielo Truda]] group of Russian anarchist exiles, which included [[Nestor Makhno]], concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, called the ''[[Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)]]'',<ref name=Platformtext>{{Cite book|last=Dielo Trouda |authorlink=Dielo Truda |title=Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft) |origyear=1926 |url=http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000 |accessdate=2006-10-24 |year=2006 |publisher=FdCA |location=Italy}}</ref> was supported. [[Platformist]] groups active today include the [[Workers Solidarity Movement]] in Ireland and the [[NEFAC|North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists]] of North America. [[Synthesis anarchism]] emerged as an organizational alternative to platformism which tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of [[anarchism without adjectives]].<ref name="infoshop.org">{{Cite web|author=0x2014 Starhawk |url=http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3 |title="J.3.2 What are "synthesis" federations?" in [[An Anarchist FAQ]]|publisher=Infoshop.org |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> In the 1920s this form found as its main proponents [[Volin]] and [[Sebastien Faure]].<ref name="infoshop.org"/> It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global [[International of Anarchist Federations]].<ref name="infoshop.org"/> [[Image:Members of the Maquis in La Tresorerie.jpg|thumb|left|Anti-fascist [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis]], who resisted [[Nazism|Nazi]] and [[Francisco Franco|Francoist]] rule in Europe.]] ===Fight against fascism and World War II=== {{Main|anti-fascism|anarchism and nationalism}}{{See also|anarchism in Italy|anarchism in France|anarchism in Spain}} In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of [[fascism]] in Europe transformed anarchism's conflict with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists. [[Anarchism in Italy|Italian anarchists]] played a key role in the [[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] organisation ''[[Arditi del Popolo]]'', which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions, and achieved some success in their activism, such as repelling [[Blackshirts]] in the anarchist stronghold of [[Parma]] in August 1922.<ref>Holbrow, Marnie, [http://www.socialistreview.org.uk/article.php?articlenumber=8205 "Daring but Divided"] (''Socialist Review'' November 2002).</ref> The veteran Italian anarchist, Luigi Fabbri, was one of the first critical theorists of fascism, describing it as "the preventive counter-revolution." [http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-one-from-anarchy-to-anarchism-300ce-1939/] In France, where the [[far right leagues]] came close to insurrection in the [[6 February 1934 crisis|February 1934 riots]], anarchists divided over a [[united front]] policy.<ref>Berry, David. "Fascism or Revolution." ''Le Libertaire''. August 1936.</ref> In Spain, the [[Confederaci0x00F3n Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing the [[Spanish Civil War]] (19360x20131939).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beevor |first=Antony |authorlink=Antony Beevor |year=2006 |page=46 |title=The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 19360x20131939 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-297-84832-5 }}</ref> In response to the army rebellion, an [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchist-inspired]] movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of [[Barcelona]] and of large areas of rural Spain where they [[Collective farming|collectivised]] the land.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Bolloten | first = Burnett | authorlink = Burnett Bolloten | coauthors = | title = The Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution | publisher = University of North Carolina Press | date = 1984-11-15 | location = | page =1107 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0-8078-1906-7 }}</ref> But even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the [[Stalinism|Stalinists]], who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the [[Soviet Union]]. Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both [[Workers' Party of Marxist Unification|dissident Marxists]] and anarchists.<ref>{{Cite book|isbn=1-57181-542-2 |page=29 |title=Sartre Against Stalinism |first=Ian |last=Birchall |year=2004 |publisher=Berghahn Books}}</ref> Anarchists in [[Anarchism in France|France]]<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/texts/war/anarFranceWW2.html "Anarchist Activity in France during World War Two"]</ref> and [[Anarchism in Italy|Italy]]<ref>[http://libcom.org/history/articles/italian-resistance-anarchist-partisans-1943 "1943-1945: Anarchist partisans in the Italian Resistance"]</ref> were active in the [[Resistance during World War II]]. === Post-war years === Anarchism sought to reorganize itself after the war. In 1939 the Mexican Anarchist Federation is established.<ref>[http://caosmosis.acracia.net/?p=477 "El mapa del despertar anarquista: su expresi0x00F3n latinoamericana" by Daniel Barret] and "Mexico 1939: Anarchist Federation of the Centre"[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/mexico-1939-anarchist-federation-of-the-centre/]</ref> In the early 1940s the Antifascist International Solidarity and Federation of Anarchist Groups of Cuba merge into the large national organization Asociaci0x00F3n Libertaria de Cuba (Cuban Libertarian Association).<ref>"The surviving sectors of the revolutionary anarchist movement of the 1920-1940 period, now working in the SIA and the FGAC, reinforced by those Cuban militants and Spanish anarchists fleeing now-fascist Spain, agreed at the beginning of the decade to hold an assembly with the purpose of regrouping the libertarian forces inside a single organization. The guarantees of the 1940 Constitution permitted them to legally create an organization of this type, and it was thus that they agreed to dissolve the two principal Cuban anarchist organizations, the SIA and FGAC, and create a new, unified group, the Asociaci0x00F3n Libertaria de Cuba (ALC), a sizable organization with a membership in the thousands."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Frank_Fernandez__Cuban_Anarchism__The_History_of_A_Movement.html#toc8 ''Cuban Anarchism: The History of A Movement'' by Frank Fernandez]</ref> From 1944 to 1947, the Bulgarian Anarchist Communist Federation reemerges as part of a factory and workplace committee movement, but is repressed by the new Communist regime.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com">[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/]</ref> In 1945 in [[Anarchism in France|France]] the [[F0x00E9d0x00E9ration Anarchiste]] is established and the also [[Synthesist anarchism|synthesist]] [[Federazione Anarchica Italiana]] is founded in [[Anarchism in Italy|Italy]]. Korean anarchists form the League of Free Social Constructors in September 1945<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com"/> and in 1946 the [[Japanese Anarchist Federation]] is founded.<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/af/ace/japchap3.html THE ANARCHIST MOVEMENT IN JAPAN Anarchist Communist Editions 0x00A7 ACE Pamphlet No. 8]</ref> An International Anarchist Congress with delegates from across Europe is held in Paris in May 1948.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com"/> In 1956 the [[Uruguayan Anarchist Federation]] is founded.<ref>[http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=3701 "50 a0x00F1os de la Federaci0x00F3n Anarquista Uruguaya"]</ref> In 1955 the Anarcho-Communist Federation of Argentina renames itself as the [[Argentine Libertarian Federation]]. Anarchism continued to be influential in important literary and intellectual personalities of the time such as [[Albert Camus]], [[Herbert Read]], [[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]], [[Dwight Macdonald]], [[Allen Ginsberg]], [[Julian Beck]] and the French [[Surrealism|Surrealist]] group led by [[Andr0x00E9 Breton]] which now openly embraced anarchism and collaborated in the [[F0x00E9d0x00E9ration Anarchiste]].<ref>"It was in the black mirror of anarchism that surrealism first recognised itself," wrote Andr0x00E9 Breton in "The Black Mirror of Anarchism," Selection 23 in Robert Graham, ed., ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939-1977)''[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/]. Breton had returned to France in 1947 and in April of that year Andre Julien welcomed his return in the pages of Le Libertaire the weekly paper of the [[F0x00E9d0x00E9ration Anarchiste|Federation Anarchiste]]"[http://libcom.org/history/1919-1950-the-politics-of-surrealism "1919-1950: The politics of Surrealism" by Nick Heath]</ref> [[Anarcho-pacifism]] became influential in the [[Anti-nuclear movement]] and [[anti war movement]]s of the time<ref>"In the forties and fifties, anarchism, in fact if not in name, began to reappear, often in alliance with pacifism, as the basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the Cold War.[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/] The anarchist/pacifist wing of the peace movement was small in comparison with the wing of the movement that emphasized electoral work, but made an important contribution to the movement as a whole. Where the more conventional wing of the peace movement rejected militarism and war under all but the most dire circumstances, the anarchist/pacifist wing rejected these on principle."[http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein]</ref><ref>"In the 1950s and 1960s anarcho-pacifism began to gel, tough-minded anarchists adding to the mixture their critique of the state, and tender-minded pacifists their critique of violence. Its first practical manifestation was at the level of method: nonviolent direct action, principled and pragmatic, was used widely in both the Civil Rights movement in the USA and the campaign against nuclear weapons in Britain and elsewhere."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Geoffrey_Ostergaard__Resisting_the_Nation_State._The_pacifist_and_anarchist_tradition.html#toc13 Geoffrey Ostergaard. ''Resisting the Nation State. The pacifist and anarchist tradition'']</ref> as can be seen in the activism and writings of the English anarchist member of [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] [[Alex Comfort]] or the similar activism of the American catholic anarcho-pacifist [[Ammon Hennacy]]. Anarcho-pacifism became a "basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the [[Cold War]]."<ref>[http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein]</ref> The resurgence of anarchist ideas during this period is well documented in Robert Graham's [[Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas]], ''Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939-1977)''.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com"/> ===Contemporary anarchism=== {{Main|Contemporary anarchism}} [[Image:ParcGuellOkupas.jpg|thumb|right|The famous ''okupas'' [[squatting|squat]] near [[Park G0x00FCell|Parc G0x00FCell]], overlooking [[Barcelona]]. [[Squatting]] was a prominent part of the emergence of renewed anarchist movement from the [[counterculture]] of the 1960s and 1970s.]] A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in western nations during the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thomas|1985|page=4}}</ref> Anarchism was influential in the [[Counterculture of the 1960s]]<ref>[http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/dnckhs "These groups had their roots in the anarchist resurgence of the nineteen sixties. Young militants finding their way to anarchism, often from the anti-bomb and anti-Vietnam war movements, linked up with an earlier generation of activists, largely outside the ossified structures of 0x2018official0x2019 anarchism. Anarchist tactics embraced demonstrations, direct action such as industrial militancy and squatting, protest bombings like those of the First of May Group and Angry Brigade 0x2013 and a spree of publishing activity.""Islands of Anarchy: Simian, Cienfuegos, Refract and their support network" by John Patten]</ref><ref>"Farrell provides a detailed history of the Catholic Workers and their founders Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin. He explains that their pacifism, anarchism, and commitment to the downtrodden were one of the important models and inspirations for the 60s. As Farrell puts it, "Catholic Workers identified the issues of the sixties before the Sixties began, and they offered models of protest long before the protest decade."[http://library.nothingness.org/articles/SA/en/display/268 "The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism" by James J. Farrell]</ref><ref>"While not always formally recognized, much of the protest of the sixties was anarchist. Within the nascent women's movement, anarchist principles bcame so widespread that a political science profes- sor denounced what she saw as "The Tyranny of Structurelessness." Several groups have called themselves "Amazon Anarchists." After the [[Stonewall Rebellion]], the New York [[Gay Liberation Front]] based their organization in part on a reading of [[Murray Bookchin]]'s anarchist writings." [http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Anarchism.pdf "Anarchism" by Charley Shively in ''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'']. pg. 52</ref> and anarchists actively participated in the [[Protests of 1968|late sixties students and workers revolts]].<ref>"Within the movements of the sixties there was much more receptivity to anarchism-in-fact than had existed in the movements of the thirties...But the movements of the sixties were driven by concerns that were more compatible with an expressive style of politics, with hostility to authority in general and state power in particular...By the late sixties, political protest was intertwined with cultural radicalism based on a critique of all authority and all hierarchies of power. Anarchism circulated within the movement along with other radical ideologies. The influence of anarchism was strongest among radical feminists, in the commune movement, and probably in the Weather Underground and elsewhere in the violent fringe of the anti-war movement." [http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein]</ref> In 1968 in [[Carrara]], Italy the [[International of Anarchist Federations]] was founded during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of [[Anarchist Federation (France)|France]], the [[Federazione Anarchica Italiana|Italian]] and the [[Iberian Anarchist Federation]] as well as the [[Bulgaria]]n federation in French exile.<ref>[http://www.iisg.nl/archives/en/files/l/10760196.php London Federation of Anarchists involvement in Carrara conference, 1968] International Institute of Social History, Accessed 19 January 2010</ref><ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/ifa-hist-short.html Short history of the IAF-IFA] A-infos news project, Accessed 19 January 2010</ref> In the United Kingdom in the 1970s this was associated with the [[punk rock]] movement, as exemplified by bands such as [[Crass]] and the [[Sex Pistols]].<ref>{{Cite book| last = McLaughlin | first = Paul | title = Anarchism and Authority | publisher = Ashgate | location = Aldershot | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-7546-6196-2 | page = 10| unused_data = page10}}</ref> The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of [[commune (intentional community)|communes]] and [[Squatting|squatter]] movements like that of [[Barcelona]], Spain. In Denmark, [[squatter]]s occupied a disused military base and declared the [[Freetown Christiania]], an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen. Since the revival of anarchism in the mid 20th century,<ref name="revival">{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Leonard |year=2007 |month=September |title=Anarchism Revived |journal=New Political Science |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=2970x2013312 |doi=10.1080/07393140701510160 |accessdate=2007-12-04 }} </ref> a number of new movements and schools of thought emerged. Although feminist tendencies have always been a part of the anarchist movement in the form of [[anarcha-feminism]], they returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s. The [[American Civil Rights Movement]] and the movement against the [[Vietnam War|war in Vietnam]] also contributed to the revival of North American anarchism. European anarchism of the late 20th century drew much of its strength from the labour movement, and both have incorporated [[animal rights]] activism. Anarchist anthropologist [[David Graeber]] and anarchist historian [[Andrej Grubacic]] have posited a rupture between generations of anarchism, with those "who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits" of the 19th century contrasted with the younger activists who are "much more informed, among other elements, by [[Traditional knowledge|indigenous]], [[feminism|feminist]], [[ecology|ecological]] and [[counterculture|cultural-critical]] ideas", and who by the turn of the 21st century formed "by far the majority" of anarchists.<ref name="graeber">[[David Graeber]] and [[Andrej Grubacic]], "[http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=41&ItemID=4796 Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century]", [[ZNet]]. Retrieved 2007-12-13. or [http://www.punksinscience.org/kleanthes/courses/UK04S/WV/Graeber-Grubacic.pdf Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej(2004)Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century Retrieved 2010-07-26]</ref> Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, and [[anti-globalisation movement]]s.<ref name=rupert>{{Cite book| page=66 |last = Rupert | first = Mark | title = Globalization and International Political Economy | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | location = Lanham | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-7425-2943-6 }}</ref> Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), [[G8|Group of Eight]], and the [[World Economic Forum]]. Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property destruction, and violent confrontations with police, and the confrontations were selectively portrayed in mainstream media coverage as violent riots. These actions were precipitated by ad hoc, leaderless, anonymous cadres known as ''[[black bloc]]s''; other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include [[security culture]], [[affinity groups]] and the use of decentralised technologies such as the internet.<ref name=rupert/> A significant event of this period was the confrontations at [[World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity|WTO conference in Seattle in 1999]].<ref name=rupert/> International anarchist federations in existence include the [[International of Anarchist Federations]], the [[International Workers' Association]], and [[International Libertarian Solidarity]]. ==Anarchist schools of thought== {{Main|Anarchist schools of thought}} [[File:Portrait of Pierre Joseph Proudhon 1865.jpg|thumb|Portrait of philosopher [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] (18090x20131865) by [[Gustave Courbet]]. Proudhon was the primary proponent of anarchist [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]], and influenced many later [[individualist anarchist]] thinkers.]] Anarchist schools of thought had been generally grouped in two main historical traditions, [[individualist anarchism]] and [[social anarchism]], which have some different origins, values and evolution.<ref name=slevin/><ref name="black dict" /><ref>[http://libertarian-labyrinth.org/archive/Anarchism Anarchism], [http://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1855069954 The New Encyclopedia of Social Reform] (1908).</ref> The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises [[negative liberty]], i.e. opposition to state or [[social control]] over the individual, while those in the social wing emphasise [[positive liberty]] to achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that society ought to fulfill, "recognizing equality of entitlement".<ref>Harrison, Kevin and Boyd, Tony. ''Understanding Political Ideas and Movements''. Manchester University Press 2003, p. 251.</ref> In chronological and theoretical sense there are classical 0x2014 those created throughout the 19th century 0x2014 and post-classical anarchist schools 0x2014 those created since the mid-20th century and after. Beyond the specific factions of anarchist thought is [[philosophical anarchism]], which embodies the theoretical stance that the [[state (polity)|state]] lacks moral legitimacy without accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism<ref>Outhwaite, William & Tourain, Alain (Eds.). (2003). Anarchism. The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought (2nd Edition, p. 12). Blackwell Publishing.</ref><ref>Wayne Gabardi, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0554%28198603%2980%3A1%3C300%3AA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 review] of ''Anarchism'' by David Miller, published in ''American Political Science Review'' Vol. 80, No. 1. (Mar., 1986), pp. 300-302.</ref> philosophical anarchism may accept the existence of a [[minarchism|minimal state]] as unfortunate, and usually temporary, "necessary evil" but argue that citizens do not have a [[moral obligation]] to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy.<ref>Klosko, George. ''Political Obligations''. Oxford University Press 2005. p. 4.</ref> One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was "[[anarchism without adjectives]]", a call for [[toleration]] first adopted by [[Fernando Tarrida del M0x00E1rmol]] in 1889 in response to the "bitter debates" of anarchist theory at the time.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''[[Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]]''. Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 6.</ref> In abandoning the hyphenated anarchisms (i.e. collectivist-, communist-, mutualist- and individualist-anarchism), it sought to emphasise the [[anti-authoritarian]] beliefs common to all anarchist schools of thought.<ref>Esenwein, George Richard "Anarchist Ideology and the Working Class Movement in Spain, 18680x20131898" [p. 135].</ref> ===Mutualism=== {{Main|Mutualism (economic theory)}} Mutualism began in 18th century English and French labour movements before taking an anarchist form associated with [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in France and others in the United States.<ref>"A member of a community," ''The Mutualist''; this 1826 series criticised [[Robert Owen]]'s proposals, and has been attributed to a dissident Owenite, possibly from the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests of Valley Forge; [[Shawn Wilburn|Wilbur, Shawn]], 2006, "More from the 1826 "Mutualist"?".</ref> Proudhon proposed [[spontaneous order]], whereby organization emerges without central authority, a "positive anarchy" where order arises when everybody does "what he wishes and only what he wishes"<ref>Proudhon, ''Solution to the Social Problem'', ed. H. Cohen (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927), p. 45.</ref> and where "business transactions alone produce the social order."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Proudhon |first=Pierre-Joseph |authorlink=Pierre-Joseph Proudhon |title=The Principle of Federation |publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto |year=1979 |isbn=0-8020-5458-7 |quote=The notion of ''anarchy'' in politics is just as rational and positive as any other. It means that once industrial functions have taken over from political functions, then business transactions alone produce the social order.}}</ref> Mutualist anarchism is concerned with [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]], free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. According to William Batchelder Greene, each worker in the mutualist system would receive "just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount."<ref>"Communism versus Mutualism", ''Socialistic, Communistic, Mutualistic and Financial Fragments''. (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1875) [[William Batchelder Greene]]: "Under the mutual system, each individual will receive the just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount; and so much as the individual laborer will then get over and above what he has earned will come to him as his share in the general prosperity of the community of which he is an individual member."</ref> Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America'', Princeton University Press 1996 ISBN 0-691-04494-5, p.6<br />''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', Blackwell Publishing 1991 ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 11.</ref> Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property."<ref>Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. ''What Is Property?'' Princeton, MA: Benjamin R. Tucker, 1876. p. 281.</ref> ===Individualist anarchism=== {{Main|Individualist anarchism}} Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the [[individual]] and their [[will (philosophy)|will]] over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems.<ref name="ryner">"What do I mean by individualism? I mean by individualism the moral doctrine which, relying on no dogma, no tradition, no external determination, appeals only to the individual conscience."[http://www.marx.org/archive/ryner/1905/mini-manual.htm ''Mini-Manual of Individualism'' by Han Ryner]</ref><ref name="tucker">"I do not admit anything except the existence of the individual, as a condition of his sovereignty. To say that the sovereignty of the individual is conditioned by Liberty is simply another way of saying that it is conditioned by itself.""Anarchism and the State" in ''Individual Liberty''</ref> Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict. [[Image:Max stirner.jpg|thumb|[[19th century philosophy|19th century philosopher]] [[Max Stirner]], usually considered a prominent early [[individualist anarchist]] (sketch by [[Friedrich Engels]]).]] In 1793, [[William Godwin]], who has often<ref>Everhart, Robert B. The Public School Monopoly: A Critical Analysis of Education and the State in American Society. Pacific Institute for Public Policy Research, 1982. p. 115.</ref> been cited as the first anarchist, wrote ''[[Political Justice]]'', which some consider to be the first expression of anarchism.<ref name="godwinsep" /><ref>Adams, Ian. Political Ideology Today. Manchester University Press, 2001. p. 116.</ref> Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a [[rationalist]] and [[utilitarian]] basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a [[Limited government|minimal state]] as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.<ref name="godwinsep">{{sep entry|godwin|William Godwin|Mark Philip|2006-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=[[Political Justice|Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners]] |last=Godwin |first=William |authorlink=William Godwin |year=1796 |publisher=G.G. and J. Robinson |oclc=2340417 |origyear=1793}}</ref> Godwin advocated extreme [[individualism]], proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.<ref>''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia''. Retrieved 7 December 2006, from [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9037183 Encyclop0x00E6dia Britannica Online].</ref><ref name=pmcl119>Paul McLaughlin. Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 119.</ref> Godwin was a utilitarian who believed that all individuals are not of equal value, with some of us "of more worth and importance" than others depending on our utility in bringing about social good. Therefore he does not believe in equal rights, but the person's life that should be favoured that is most conducive to the general good.<ref name=pmcl119/> Godwin opposed government because he saw it as infringing on the individual's right to "private judgement" to determine which actions most maximise utility, but also makes a critique of all authority over the individual's judgement. This aspect of Godwin's philosophy, stripped of utilitarian motivations, was developed into a more extreme form later by Stirner.<ref>Paul McLaughlin. Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 123.</ref> The most extreme form of individualist anarchism, called "egoism,"<ref name="Goodway, David 2006, p. 99">Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press, 2006, p. 99.</ref> or [[egoist anarchism]], was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, Max Stirner.<ref name="SEP-Stirner">{{sep entry|max-stirner|Max Stirner|[[David Leopold]]|2006-08-04}}</ref> Stirner's ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'', published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy.<ref name = "SEP-Stirner" /> According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire,<ref>The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge. Encyclopedia Corporation. p. 176.</ref> without regard for God, state, or morality.<ref>Miller, David. "Anarchism." 1987. ''The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11.</ref> To Stirner, rights were ''[[Reification (fallacy)|spooks]]'' in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality".<ref>"What my might reaches is my property; and let me claim as property everything I feel myself strong enough to attain, and let me extend my actual property as fas as ''I'' entitle, that is, empower myself to take..." In Ossar, Michael. 1980. ''Anarchism in the Dramas of Ernst Toller''. SUNY Press. p. 27.</ref> Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw [[union of egoists|unions of egoists]], non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will,<ref name=nonserviam>{{Cite web|first=Svein Olav |last=Nyberg |work=Non Serviam|url=http://www.nonserviam.com/stirner/philosophy/index.html|title=max stirner|accessdate=2008-12-04}}</ref> which Stirner proposed as a form of organization in place of the [[state (polity)|state]].<ref name=karl>{{Cite book| last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = [[Routledge]]/[[Kegan Paul]] | location = London | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=142}}</ref> Egoist anarchists claim that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals.<ref name=carlson>{{Cite book| last = Carlson | first = Andrew | title = Anarchism in Germany | publisher = Scarecrow Press | location = Metuchen | year = 1972 | isbn = 0-8108-0484-0 |chapterurl=http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/carlson.html |chapter=Philosophical Egoism: German Antecedents|accessdate=2008-12-04}}</ref> "Egoism" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and [[LGBT]] activist [[John Henry Mackay]]. Individualist anarchism inspired by Stirner attracted a small but diverse following of bohemian artists and intellectuals,<ref name="bohemian individualism">[http://libcom.org/library/socanlifean2 "2. Individualist Anarchism and Reaction" in Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism - An Unbridgeable Chasm]</ref> [[free love]] and [[birth control]] advocates (see [[Anarchism and issues related to love and sex]]),<ref name="freelove">[http://www.ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy McElroy]</ref><ref>[http://www.acracia.org/1-23a58lainsumision.pdf "La insumisi0x00F3n voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista espa0x00F1ol durante la Dictadura y la Segunda Rep0x00FAblica (1923-1938)" by Xavier D0x00EDez]</ref> individualist [[Naturism|naturist]]s [[Nudism|nudist]]s (see [[anarcho-naturism]])<ref>"Los anarco-individualistas, G.I.A...Una escisi0x00F3n de la FAI producida en el IX Congreso (Carrara, 1965) se pr odujo cuando un sector de anarquistas de tendencia humanista rechazan la interpretaci0x00F3n que ellos juzgan disciplinaria del ''pacto asociativo" cl0x00E1sico, y crean los GIA (Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica) . Esta peque0x00F1a federaci0x00F3n de grupos, hoy nutrida sobre todo de veteranos anarco-individualistas de orientaci0x00F3n pacifista, naturista, etc0x00E9tera defiende la autonom0x00EDa personal y rechaza a rajatabla toda forma de intervenci0x00F3n en los procesos del sistema, como ser0x00EDa por ejemplo el sindicalismo. Su portavoz es L'Internazionale con sede en Ancona. La escisi0x00F3n de los GIA prefiguraba, en sentido contrario, el gran debate que pronto hab0x00EDa de comenzar en el seno del movimiento"[http://www.almeralia.com/bicicleta/bicicleta/ciclo/01/17.htm "El movimiento libertario en Italia" by ''Bicicleta. REVISTA DE COMUNICACIONES LIBERTARIAS'' Year 1 No. Noviembre, 1 1977]</ref> ,<ref name="acracia.org">"Proliferar0x00E1n as0x00ED diversos grupos que practicar0x00E1n el excursionismo, el naturismo, el nudismo, la emancipaci0x00F3n sexual o el esperantismo, alrededor de asociaciones informales vinculadas de una manera o de otra al anarquismo. Precisamente las limitaciones a las asociaciones obreras impuestas desde la legislaci0x00F3n especial de la Dictadura potenciar0x00E1n indirectamente esta especie de asociacionismo informal en que confluir0x00E1 el movimiento anarquista con esta heterogeneidad de pr0x00E1cticas y tendencias. Uno de los grupos m0x00E1s destacados, que ser0x00E1 el impulsor de la revista individualista 0x00C9tica ser0x00E1 el Ateneo Naturista Ecl0x00E9ctico, con sede en Barcelona, con sus diferentes secciones la m0x00E1s destacada de las cuales ser0x00E1 el grupo excursionista Sol y Vida."[http://www.acracia.org/1-23a58lainsumision.pdf "La insumisi0x00F3n voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista espa0x00F1ol durante la Dictadura y la Segunda Rep0x00FAblica (1923-1938)" by Xavier D0x00EDez]</ref><ref name="aujourdhui">"Les anarchistes individualistes du d0x00E9but du si0x00E8cle l'avaient bien compris, et int0x00E9graient le naturisme dans leurs pr0x00E9occupations. Il est vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu 0x00E0 peu effac0x00E9, d'antan plus que nous assistons, en ce moment, 0x00E0 un retour en force du puritanisme (conservateur par essence)."[http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html "Anarchisme et naturisme, aujourd'hui." by Cathy Ytak]</ref> as well as young anarchist outlaws in what came to be known as [[illegalism]] and [[individual reclamation]]<ref name="The Illegalists">[http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm The "Illegalists"], by Doug Imrie (published by [[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]])</ref><ref name="Parry, Richard 1987. p. 15">Parry, Richard. The Bonnot Gang. Rebel Press, 1987. p. 15</ref>(see [[European individualist anarchism]]). ===Social anarchism=== {{Main|Social anarchism}} Social anarchism calls for a system with public ownership of means of production and democratic control of all organizations, without any government authority or [[coercion]]. It is the largest school of thought in anarchism.<ref>"This does not mean that the majority thread within the anarchist movement is uncritical of individualist anarchism. Far from it! Social anarchists have argued that this influence of non-anarchist ideas means that while its "criticism of the State is very searching, and [its] defence of the rights of the individual very powerful," like Spencer it "opens . . . the way for reconstituting under the heading of 'defence' all the functions of the State." [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secGint.html Section G 0x2013 Is individualist anarchism capitalistic? ''[[An Anarchist FAQ]]'']</ref> Social anarchism rejects private property, seeing it as a source of social inequality, and emphasises cooperation and [[mutual aid (organization)|mutual aid]].<ref>[[Geoffrey Ostergaard|Ostergaard, Geoffrey]]. "Anarchism". A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell Publishing, 1991. p. 21.</ref> [[File:Kropotkin2.jpg|thumb|left|Russian theorist [[Peter Kropotkin]] (18420x20131921), who was influential in the development of [[anarchist communism]].]] [[Collectivist anarchism]], also referred to as "revolutionary socialism" or a form of such,<ref>Morris, Brian. Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd., 1993. p. 76.</ref><ref>Rae, John. Contemporary Socialism. C. Scribner's sons, 1901, Original from Harvard University. p. 261.</ref> is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Johann Most]].<ref name = "Patsouras-p54">Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54.</ref><ref>Avrich, Paul. 2006. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. [[AK Press]]. p. 5.</ref> Collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivised. This was to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence, or "[[propaganda by the deed]]", which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivise the means of production.<ref name = "Patsouras-p54" /> However, collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income, as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by [[anarchist communists]] as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kropotkin |first=Peter |title=The Conquest of Bread |publisher=AK Press |location=Edinburgh |year=2007 |chapter=13 |isbn=978-1-904859-10-9}}</ref> Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with [[Marxism]] but opposed the Marxist [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bakunin |first=Mikhail |title=Statism and Anarchy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1990 |isbn=0-521-36182-6 |quote=They [the Marxists] maintain that only a dictatorship&nbsp;0x2013 their dictatorship, of course&nbsp;0x2013 can create the will of the people, while our answer to this is: No dictatorship can have any other aim but that of self-perpetuation, and it can beget only slavery in the people tolerating it; freedom can be created only by freedom, that is, by a universal rebellion on the part of the people and free organization of the toiling masses from the bottom up.}}</ref> Anarchist, communist and collectivist ideas are not [[mutually exclusive]]; although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labour, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.<ref>{{Cite web|authorlink=James Guillaume|last=Guillaume |first=James |url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/guillaume/works/ideas.htm |title=Ideas on Social Organization |year=1876}}</ref> [[Anarchist communism]] proposes that the freest form of [[social organisation]] would be a society composed of [[self-governance|self-managing]] [[Commune (socialism)|communes]] with collective use of the [[means of production]], organised [[democracy|democratically]], and related to other communes through [[federation]].<ref name="LibCom">[[Isaac Puente|Puente, Isaac]].[http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/libcom.html "Libertarian Communism"]. ''The Cienfuegos Press Anarchist Review''. Issue 6 Orkney 1982.</ref> While some anarchist communists favour [[direct democracy]], others feel that its [[majority rule|majoritarianism]] can impede individual liberty and favour [[consensus democracy]] instead. In anarchist communism, as money would be abolished, individuals would not receive direct [[Remuneration|compensation]] for labour (through sharing of [[Profit (economics)|profits]] or payment) but would have free access to the resources and surplus of the commune.<ref>Miller. ''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', Blackwell Publishing (1991) ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 12.</ref><ref>[[David Graeber|Graeber, David]] and Grubacic, Andrej. ''Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century''.</ref> Anarchist communism does not always have a [[communitarian]] philosophy. Some forms of anarchist communism are [[egoist anarchism|egoist]] and strongly influenced by radical individualism,<ref>Christopher Gray, ''Leaving the Twentieth Century'', p. 88.</ref> believing that anarchist communism does not require a communitarian nature at all. In the early 20th century, [[anarcho-syndicalism]] arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism.<ref>Berry, David, ''A History of the French Anarchist Movement'', 19170x20131945 p. 134.</ref> With greater focus on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism, [[syndicalism]] posits radical [[trade union]]s as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society, democratically [[Workers' self-management|self-managed by the workers]]. It is often combined with other branches of anarchism, and anarcho-syndicalists often subscribe to [[anarchist communism|anarchist communist]] or [[collectivist anarchist]] [[economic system]]s.<ref name="faq-social">{{Cite book|editor=Iain Mckay |title=[[An Anarchist FAQ]] |publisher=[[AK Press]] |location=Stirling |year=2008 |isbn=1-902593-90-1 |oclc=182529204|chapter=Are there different types of social anarchism? |url=http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secA3.html#seca32}}</ref> An early leading anarcho-syndicalist thinker was [[Rudolf Rocker]], whose 1938 pamphlet ''Anarchosyndicalism'' outlined a view of the movement's origin, aims and importance to the future of labour.<ref name="faq-social" /><ref>[http://www.spunk.org/library/writers/rocker/sp001495/rocker_as1.html ''Anarchosyndicalism]'' by [[Rudolf Rocker]]. Retrieved 7 September 2006.</ref> ===Post-classical currents=== {{See also|Contemporary anarchism}} [[File:Jarach and Zerzan.JPG|thumb|right|[[Lawrence Jarach]] (left) and [[John Zerzan]] (right), two prominent contemporary anarchist authors. Zerzan is known as a main theorist of [[anarcho-primitivism]], while Jarach is a noted advocate of [[post-left anarchy]].]] Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources, and [[Syncretic politics|syncretic]], combining disparate and contrary concepts to create new philosophical approaches. Since the revival of anarchism in the United States in the 1960s,<ref name="revival">{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Leonard |year=2007 |month=September |title=Anarchism Revived |journal=New Political Science |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=2970x2013312 |doi=10.1080/07393140701510160 }} </ref> a number of new movements and schools have emerged.<ref>Perlin, Terry M. ''[http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=mppLKlwHx7oC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Contemporary+_+Anarchism&ei=vSDBSuXHMo2mM8mu-OsP#v=onepage&q=&f=false Contemporary Anarchism]''. Transaction Books, New Brunswick, NJ 1979</ref> [[Anarcho-capitalism]] developed from radical anti-state [[libertarianism]] and [[individualist anarchism]], drawing from [[Austrian School]] economics, study of [[law and economics]] and [[public choice theory]],<ref>Edward Stringham, [http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=53&articleID=686 ''Anarchy, State, and Public Choice''], Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2005.</ref> while the burgeoning [[feminism|feminist]] and [[environmentalism|environmentalist]] movements also produced anarchist offshoots. [[Anarcha-feminism]] developed as a synthesis of [[radical feminism]] and anarchism that views [[patriarchy]] (male domination over women) as a fundamental manifestation of compulsory government. It was inspired by the late 19th century writings of early feminist anarchists such as [[Lucy Parsons]], [[Emma Goldman]], [[Voltairine de Cleyre]], and [[Dora Marsden]]. Anarcha-feminists, like other radical feminists, criticise and advocate the abolition of traditional conceptions of family, education and [[gender role]]s. [[Green anarchism]] (or eco-anarchism)<ref>David Pepper (1996). [http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=PQOvkB7UoWgC&pg=PA44&dq= Modern Environmentalism] p. 44. Routledge.</ref> is a school of thought within anarchism which puts an emphasis on environmental issues,<ref>Ian Adams (2001). [http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=apstK1qIvvMC&pg=PA130&dq= Political Ideology Today] p. 130. Manchester University Press.</ref> with an important precedent in [[anarcho-naturism]]<ref name="acracia.org"/><ref>"Anarchism and the different Naturist views have always been related."[http://www.naturismo.org/adn/ediciones/2003/invierno/7e.html "Anarchism - Nudism, Naturism" by Carlos Ortega at Asociacion para el Desarrollo Naturista de la Comunidad de Madrid. Published on Revista ''ADN''. Winter 2003]</ref><ref name="naturismolibertario">[http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf#search=%22Antonia%20Maym%C3%B3n%22 EL NATURISMO LIBERTARIO EN LA PEN0x00CDNSULA IB0x00C9RICA (1890-1939) by Jose Maria Rosello]</ref> and whose main contemporary currents are [[anarcho-primitivism]] and [[social ecology]]. [[Anarcho-pacifism]] is a tendency which rejects the use of violence in the struggle for social change.<ref name="ppu.org.uk"/><ref name="Anarchism 1962"/> It developed "mostly in the [[Netherlands]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]], and the [[United States]], before and during the [[World War II|Second World War]]".<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/> [[Post-left anarchy]] is a tendency which seeks to distance itself from traditional [[left-wing politics]] and to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general. [[Post-anarchism]] is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought drawing from diverse ideas including [[post-modernism]], [[autonomist marxism]], [[post-left anarchy]], [[Situationist International|situationism]] and [[postcolonialism]]. Another recent form of anarchism critical of formal anarchist movements is [[insurrectionary anarchism]],<ref name="joeblack">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ainfos.ca/06/jul/ainfos00232.html |title="Anarchism, insurrections and insurrectionalism" by Joe Black |publisher=Ainfos.ca |date=2006-07-19 |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> which advocates informal organization and active resistance to the state; its proponents include [[Wolfi Landstreicher]] and [[Alfredo M. Bonanno]]. <!-- If you are looking to extend this section, please add the content to the proper sub-article [[anarchist schools of thought]] instead. -->{{-}} ==Topics of interest in anarchist theory== Intersecting and overlapping between various schools of thought, certain topics of interest and internal disputes have proven perennial within anarchist theory. ===Free love=== {{Main|Free love|Anarchism and sex/love|Anarcha-feminism|Queer anarchism}} [[File:Emilearmand01.jpg|thumb|300x300px|French [[individualist anarchist]] [[Emile Armand]] (18720x20131962), who propounded the virtues of free love in the Parisian anarchist milieu of the early 20th century]] An important current within anarchism is [[Free love]].<ref name="freelove">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html |title=The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy McElroy |publisher=Ncc-1776.org |date=1996-12-01 |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to [[Josiah Warren]] and to experimental communities, viewed sexual freedom as a clear, direct expression of an individual's self-ownership. Free love particularly stressed [[women's rights]] since most sexual laws discriminated against women: for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures.<ref name="freelove"/> The most important American free love journal was ''[[Lucifer the Lightbearer]]'' (18830x20131907) edited by [[Moses Harman]] and [[Lois Waisbrooker]],<ref>Joanne E. Passet, "Power through Print: Lois Waisbrooker and Grassroots Feminism," in: ''Women in Print: Essays on the Print Culture of American Women from the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries'', James Philip Danky and Wayne A. Wiegand, eds., Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press, 2006; pp. 2290x2013250.</ref> but also there existed [[Ezra Heywood]] and Angela Heywood's ''[[The Word (free love)|''The Word'']]'' (18720x20131890, 18920x20131893).<ref name="freelove"/> ''[[Free Society]]'' (1895-1897 as ''The Firebrand''; 1897-1904 as ''Free Society'') was a major anarchist newspaper in the [[United States]] at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.<ref name="Goldman-MSF-551">"''Free Society'' was the principal English-language forum for anarchist ideas in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century." ''Emma Goldman: Making Speech Free, 1902-1909'', p.551.</ref> The publication staunchly advocated [[free love]] and [[women's rights]], and critiqued "[[Comstockery]]" -- censorship of sexual information.Also [[M. E. Lazarus]] was an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love.<ref name="freelove"/> In New York City's [[Greenwich Village]], [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] feminists and socialists advocated self-realisation and pleasure for women (and also men) in the here and now. They encouraged playing with sexual roles and sexuality,<ref>Sochen, June. 1972. ''The New Woman: Feminism in Greenwich Village 19100x20131920.'' New York: Quadrangle.</ref> and the openly bisexual radical [[Edna St. Vincent Millay]] and the lesbian anarchist [[Margaret Anderson]] were prominent among them. Discussion groups organised by the Villagers were frequented by [[Emma Goldman]], among others. Magnus Hirschfeld noted in 1923 that Goldman "has campaigned boldly and steadfastly for individual rights, and especially for those deprived of their rights. Thus it came about that she was the first and only woman, indeed the first and only American, to take up the defense of homosexual love before the general public."<ref>Katz, Jonathan Ned. ''Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A.'' (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1976)</ref> In fact, before Goldman, [[heterosexual]] anarchist Robert Reitzel (18490x20131898) spoke positively of homosexuality from the beginning of the 1890s in his Detroit-based German language journal ''[[Der arme Teufel]]''. In Argentina anarcha-feminist [[Virginia Bolten]] published the newspaper called ''{{lang|es|La Voz de la Mujer}}'' ({{lang-en|The Woman's Voice}}), which was published nine times in Rosario between 8 January 1896 and 1 January 1897, and was revived, briefly, in 1901.<ref name="molyneux">{{cite book|last=Molyneux|first=Maxine|title=Women's movements in international perspective: Latin America and beyond|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2001|page=24|isbn=9780333786772|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yg9HFrOG89kC&pg=PA24}}</ref> In Europe the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was [[Emile Armand]].<ref name="armandfreelove">{{Cite web|url=http://www.iisg.nl/womhist/manfreuk.pdf |title=E. Armand and "la camaraderie amoureuse" 0x2013 Revolutionary sexualism and the struggle against jealousy |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> He proposed the concept of ''la camaraderie amoureuse'' to speak of free love as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults. He was also a consistent proponent of [[polyamory]].<ref name="armandfreelove"/> In Germany the [[stirner]]ists [[Adolf Brand]] and [[John Henry Mackay]] were pioneering campaigners for the acceptance of male [[bisexuality]] and [[homosexuality]]. More recently, the British [[anarcho-pacifist]] [[Alex Comfort]] gained notoriety during the [[sexual revolution]] for writing the bestseller sex manual ''[[The Joy of Sex]]''. The issue of [[free love]] has a dedicated treatment in the work of French anarcho-[[hedonist]] philosopher [[Michel Onfray]] in such works as ''Th0x00E9orie du corps amoureux : pour une 0x00E9rotique solaire'' (2000) and ''L'invention du plaisir : fragments cyr0x00E9aniques'' (2002). ===Libertarian education=== [[File:Fransisco Ferrer Guardia.jpg|150px|left|thumb|[[Francesc Ferrer i Gu0x00E0rdia]], [[Catalan people|Catalan]] anarchist pedagogue]] For English anarchist [[William Godwin]] education was "the main means by which change would be achieved."<ref name="GroupedRef1">[http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-good.htm "william godwin and informal education" by infed]</ref> Godwin saw that the main goal of education should be the promotion of happiness <ref name="GroupedRef1" /> For Godwin education had to have "A respect for the child0x2019s autonomy which precluded any form of coercion", "A pedagogy that respected this and sought to build on the child0x2019s own motivation and initiatives" and "A concern about the child0x2019s capacity to resist an ideology transmitted through the school."<ref name="GroupedRef1" /> In his ''[[Political Justice]]'' he criticizes state sponsored schooling "on account of its obvious alliance with national government".<ref>[http://web.bilkent.edu.tr/Online/www.english.upenn.edu/jlynch/Frank/Godwin/pj68.html [[Political Justice]] by [[William Godwin]]]</ref> Early American anarchist [[Josiah Warren]] advanced alternative education experiences in the libertarian communities he established.<ref>"Where utopian projectors starting with [[Plato]] entertained the idea of creating an ideal species through eugenics and education and a set of universally valid institutions inculcating shared identities, Warren wanted to dissolve such identities in a solution of individual self-sovereignty. His educational experiments, for example, possibly under the influence of the great Swiss educational theorist [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]] (via [[Robert Owen|Owen]]), emphasized - as we would expect - the nurturing of the independence and the conscience of individual children, not the inculcation of pre-conceived values.[http://www.crispinsartwell.com/warrenintrocurrent.htm "Introduction of The Practical Anarchist: Writings of Josiah Warren" by Crispin Sartwell]</ref> [[Max Stirner]] wrote in 1842 a long essay on education called ''[[The False Principle of our Education]]''. In it Stirner names his educational principle "personalist," explaining that self-understanding consists in hourly self-creation. Education for him is to create "free men, sovereign characters," by which he means "eternal characters...who are therefore eternal because they form themselves each moment".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/falseprinciple.html |title="The False Principle of our Education" by Max Stirner |publisher=Tmh.floonet.net |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> In 1901, Catalan anarchist and [[Freethought|free-thinker]] [[Francesc Ferrer i Gu0x00E0rdia]] established "modern" or [[Progressive education|progressive schools]] in [[Barcelona]] in defiance of an educational system controlled by the Catholic Church.<ref name="Fidler">{{Cite journal|author=Geoffrey C. Fidler |year=1985 |month=Spring/Summer |title=The Escuela Moderna Movement of Francisco Ferrer: "Por la Verdad y la Justicia" |journal=History of Education Quarterly |volume=25 |issue=1/2 |pages=1030x2013132 |id= |doi=10.2307/368893 |jstor=368893 |publisher=History of Education Society}}</ref> The schools' stated goal was to "[[Popular education|educate the working class]] in a rational, secular and non-coercive setting". Fiercely anti-clerical, Ferrer believed in "freedom in education", education free from the authority of church and state.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/spain/ferrer.html |title=Francisco Ferrer's Modern School |publisher=Flag.blackened.net |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> [[Murray Bookchin]] wrote: "This period [1890s] was the heyday of libertarian schools and pedagogical projects in all areas of the country where Anarchists exercised some degree of influence. Perhaps the best-known effort in this field was Francisco Ferrer's Modern School (Escuela Moderna), a project which exercised a considerable influence on Catalan education and on experimental techniques of teaching generally."<ref>Chapter 7, ''[[anarcho-syndicalism|Anarchosyndicalism]], The New Ferment''. In Murray Bookchin, ''The Spanish anarchists: the heroic years, 18680x20131936''. AK Press, 1998, p.115. ISBN 1-873176-04-X</ref> La Escuela Moderna, and Ferrer's ideas generally, formed the inspiration for a series of ''[[Modern School (United States)|Modern Schools]]'' in the [[United States]],<ref name="Fidler"/> [[Cuba]], [[South America]] and [[London]]. The first of these was started in [[New York City]] in 1911. It also inspired the Italian newspaper ''[[Universit0x00E0 popolare (Italian newspaper)|Universit0x00E0 popolare]]'', founded in 1901. Russian [[christian anarchist]] [[Leo Tolstoy]] established a school for peasant children on his estate.<ref name="GroupedRef2">[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Matt_Hern__The_Emergence_of_Compulsory_Schooling_and_Anarchist_Resistance.html "The Emergence of Compulsory Schooling and Anarchist Resistance" by Matt Hern]</ref> Tolstoy's educational experiments were short-lived due to harassment by the Tsarist secret police.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wilson | first = A.N. | title = Tolstoy | publisher = Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc. | year = 2001 | page = xxi | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=imYmH8myBUsC&pg=PR19 | isbn = 0393321223 }}</ref> Tolstoy established a conceptual difference between education and culture.<ref name="GroupedRef2" /> He thought that "Education is the tendency of one man to make another just like himself... Education is culture under restraint, culture is free. [Education is] when the teaching is forced upon the pupil, and when then instruction is exclusive, that is when only those subjects are taught which the educator regards as necessary".<ref name="GroupedRef2" /> For him "without compulsion, education was transformed into culture".<ref name="GroupedRef2" /> A more recent libertarian tradition on education is that of [[unschooling]] and the [[anarchist free school|free school]] in which child-led activity replaces pedagogic approaches. Experiments in Germany led to [[A. S. Neill]] founding what became [[Summerhill School]] in 1921.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Purkis | first = Jon | title = Changing Anarchism | publisher = Manchester University Press | location = Manchester | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-7190-6694-8 }}</ref> Summerhill is often cited as an example of anarchism in practice.<ref>Andrew Vincent (2010) ''Modern Political Ideologies'', 3rd edition, Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell p.129</ref> However, although Summerhill and other free schools are radically libertarian, they differ in principle from those of Ferrer by not advocating an overtly political [[class struggle]]-approach.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Judith |last=Suissa |url=http://newhumanist.org.uk/1288/anarchy-in-the-classroom|title= Anarchy in the classroom |journal=[[The New Humanist]] |volume=120 |issue=5 |month=September/October |year=2005}}</ref> In addition to organizing schools according to libertarian principles, anarchists have also questioned the concept of schooling per se. The term [[deschooling]] was popularized by [[Ivan Illich]], who argued that the school as an institution is dysfunctional for self-determined learning and serves the creation of a consumer society instead.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Illich| first=Ivan |title=Deschooling Society |place= New York|publisher= Harper and Row| year= 1971| isbn= 0-06-012139-4}}</ref> ===Internal issues and debates=== [[File:Gadewar.jpg|thumb|The use of [[anarchism and violence|violence]] is a subject of much dispute in anarchism.]]<!-- In the interest of restricting article length, please limit this section to two or three short paragraphs and add any substantial information to the main Issues in anarchism article. Thank you. --> Anarchism is a [[philosophy]] which embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; as such, disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. The compatibility of [[anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]],<ref name=oxcom/> [[anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]] and [[anarchism and religion|religion]] with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as [[Anarchism and Marxism|Marxism]], [[Issues in anarchism#Communism|communism]] and [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]]. Anarchists may be motivated by [[humanism]], [[Christian anarchism|divine authority]], [[ethical egoism|enlightened self-interest]], [[veganarchism|veganism]] or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as [[civilization]], [[technology]] (e.g. within [[anarcho-primitivism]] and [[insurrectionary anarchism]]), and [[Issues in anarchism#Participation in statist democracy|the democratic process]] may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. On a tactical level, while [[propaganda of the deed]] was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the [[Nihilist movement]]), contemporary anarchists espouse alternative [[direct action]] methods such as [[nonviolence]], [[counter-economics]] and [[Crypto-anarchism|anti-state cryptography]] to bring about an anarchist society. About the scope of an anarchist society, some anarchists advocate a global one, while others do so by local ones.<ref>Ted Honderich, Carmen Garc0x00EDa Trevijano, [http://books.google.es/books?id=s9iwZGv44psC&pg=PA402&dq=Enciclopedia+teor%C3%ADa+pol%C3%ADtica&lr=&as_brr=3#PPA57,M1 ''Oxford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy''].</ref> The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions, which has led to many [[definitional concerns in anarchist theory]].{{-}} ==Related pages== {{Main|Outline of anarchism}} * [[Anarchist symbolism]] * [[Lists of anarchism topics]] * [[List of anarchist communities]] * [[List of anarchist movements by region]] {{Portal bar|Anarchism|Philosophy|Politics|Social and political philosophy|Social movements|Sociology}} <!-- Please use this section for major overview articles/lists that address a significant aspect of anarchism --> ==Footnotes== {{Reflist|colwidth=40em}} ==Further reading== * ''[[Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas]].'' Robert Graham, editor. ** ''Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939)'' Black Rose Books, Montr0x00E9al and London 2005. ISBN 1-55164-250-6. ** ''Volume Two: The Anarchist Current (19390x20132006)'' Black Rose Books, Montr0x00E9al 2007. ISBN 978-1-55164-311-3. * ''Anarchism'', [[George Woodcock]] (Penguin Books, 1962). {{oclc|221147531}}. * ''Anarchy: A Graphic Guide'', [[Clifford Harper]] (Camden Press, 1987): An overview, updating Woodcock's classic, and illustrated throughout by Harper's woodcut-style artwork. * ''The Anarchist Reader'', George Woodcock (ed.) (Fontana/Collins 1977; ISBN 0-00-634011-3): An anthology of writings from anarchist thinkers and activists including [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], [[Errico Malatesta|Malatesta]], [[Murray Bookchin|Bookchin]], [[Emma Goldman|Goldman]], and many others. * [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Daniel_Guerin__Anarchism__From_Theory_to_Practice.html ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice''] by [[Daniel Guerin]]. Monthly Review Press. 1970. ISBN 0-85345-175-3 * ''Anarchy through the times'' by [[Max Nettlau]]. Gordon Press. 1979. ISBN 0-8490-1397-6 * ''Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism'' by [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]]. PM Press. 2010. ISBN 1-60486-064-2 * ''People Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchy'' (2nd ed.) by [[Harold Barclay]], Left Bank Books, 1990 ISBN 1-871082-16-1 * ''The Political Theory of Anarchism'' by [[April Carter]]. Harper & Row. 1971. ISBN 978-0-0613-6050-3 * {{cite book|author=Sartwell, Crispin|title=Against the state: an introduction to anarchist political theory|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2008|isbn=9780791474471|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0C}} <!-- PLEASE only include well-renowned works by reputable scholars which cover anarchism as a whole rather than individual currents. --> ==External links== {{Sister project links|n=no|v=no}} {{Wikisource1911Enc|Anarchism}} * [http://www.infoshop.org/ Infoshop.org] - the largest online collection of news and information about anarchism. * {{In Our Time|Anarchism|p0038x9t|Anarchism}} * [http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnAnarchistFAQ "An Anarchist FAQ Webpage"]&nbsp;0x2013[[An Anarchist FAQ]] * [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/anarfaq.htm Anarchist Theory FAQ]&nbsp;0x2013by [[Bryan Caplan]] * [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/ The Anarchist Library] large online library with texts from anarchist authors * [http://www.ditext.com/anarchism/ Anarchism: A Bibliography] * [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia]&nbsp;0x2013700+ entries, with short biographies, links and dedicated pages * [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/ Anarchy Archives]&nbsp;0x2013 information relating to famous anarchists including their writings (see [[Anarchy Archives]]). * [http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/ KateSharpleyLibrary.net]&nbsp;0x2013website of the [[Kate Sharpley Library]], containing many historical documents pertaining to anarchism * [http://www.theyliewedie.org/ressources/biblio/index-en.php They Lie We Die]&nbsp;0x2013anarchist virtual library containing 768 books, booklets and texts <!-- Attention! 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[[bg:0x04100x043D0x04300x04400x04450x04380x04370x044A0x043C]] [[ca:Anarquisme]] [[cs:Anarchismus]] [[cy:Anarchiaeth]] [[da:Anarkisme]] [[pdc:Anarchism]] [[de:Anarchismus]] [[et:Anarhism]] [[el:0x03910x03BD0x03B10x03C10x03C70x03B90x03C30x03BC0x03CC0x03C2]] [[es:Anarquismo]] [[eo:Anarkiismo]] [[eu:Anarkismo]] [[fa:0x06220x06460x06270x06310x06340x06CC0x06330x0645]] [[hif:Khalbali]] [[fo:Anarkisma]] [[fr:Anarchisme]] [[fy:Anargisme]] [[ga:Ainrialachas]] [[gd:Ain-Riaghailteachd]] [[gl:Anarquismo]] [[ko:0xC5440xB0980xD0A40xC998]] [[hi:0x09050x09300x093E0x091C0x09150x09240x093E]] [[hr:Anarhizam]] [[id:Anarkisme]] [[is:Stj0x00F3rnleysisstefna]] [[it:Anarchismo]] [[he:0x05D00x05E00x05E80x05DB0x05D90x05D60x05DD]] [[jv:Anarkisme]] [[kn:0x0C850x0CB00x0CBE0x0C9C0x0C950x0CA40x0CBE0x0CB50x0CBE0x0CA6]] [[ka:0x10D00x10DC0x10D00x10E00x10E50x10D80x10D60x10DB0x10D8]] [[kk:0x04100x043D0x04300x04400x04450x04380x04370x043C]] [[sw:Utawala huria]] [[lad:Anarkismo]] [[krc:0x04100x043D0x04300x04400x04450x04380x04370x043C]] [[la:Anarchismus]] [[lv:Anarhisms]] [[lb:Anarchismus]] [[lt:Anarchizmas]] [[jbo:nonje'asi'o]] [[hu:Anarchizmus]] [[mk:0x04100x043D0x04300x04400x04450x04380x04370x04300x043C]] [[ml:0x0D050x0D300x0D3E0x0D1C0x0D150x0D240x0D4D0x0D350x0D350x0D3E0x0D260x0D02]] [[arz:0x06270x06460x06270x06310x06430x064A0x0647]] [[ms:Anarkisme]] [[mwl:Anarquismo]] [[mn:0x04100x043D0x04300x04400x04450x04380x04370x043C]] [[nl:Anarchisme]] [[ja:0x30A20x30CA0x30AD0x30BA0x30E0]] [[no:Anarkisme]] [[nn:Anarkisme]] [[oc:Anarquisme]] [[pnb:0x06270x06460x06270x06310x06A90x06CC]] [[pl:Anarchizm]] [[ps:0x06270x06460x06270x06310x06340x064A0x06320x0645]] [[pt:Anarquismo]] [[ro:Anarhism]] [[rue:0x04100x043D0x04300x04400x04450x04560x04370x043C]] [[ru:0x04100x043D0x04300x04400x04450x04380x04370x043C]] [[sah:0x04100x043D0x04300x04400x04450x04380x04370x043C]] [[sco:Anarchism]] [[simple:Anarchism]] [[sk:Anarchizmus]] [[sl:Anarhizem]] [[ckb:0x06260x06270x06460x06270x06310x06A90x06CC0x06320x0645]] [[sr:0x04100x043D0x04300x04400x04450x04380x04370x04300x043C]] [[sh:Anarhizam]] [[fi:Anarkismi]] [[sv:Anarkism]] [[tl:Anarkismo]] [[ta:0x0B850x0BB00x0B9A0x0BBF0x0BA90x0BCD0x0BAE0x0BC8]] [[th:0x0E2D0x0E190x0E320x0E180x0E340x0E1B0x0E440x0E150x0E22]] [[tg:0x04100x043D0x04300x04400x04450x04380x04370x043C]] [[tr:Anar0x015Fizm]] [[uk:0x04100x043D0x04300x04400x04450x04560x04370x043C]] [[ur:0x06410x06480x06360x06CC0x062A]] [[ug:0x06260x06270x06460x06270x06310x062E0x06490x06320x0645]] [[vec:Anarchismo]] [[vi:Ch0x1EE7 ngh0x0129a v0x00F4 ch0x00EDnh ph0x1EE7]] [[fiu-vro:Anarkism]] [[war:Anarkismo]] [[yi:0x05D00x05E00x05D00x05E80x05DB0x05D90x05D60x05DD]] [[zh-yue:0x71210x653F0x5E9C0x4E3B0x7FA9]] [[diq:Anar0x015Fizm]] [[bat-smg:Anark0x0117zmos]] [[zh:0x65E00x653F0x5E9C0x4E3B0x4E49]] 13 74466652 2006-09-08T04:15:52Z Rory096 750223 cat rd #REDIRECT [[History of Afghanistan]] {{R from CamelCase}} 14 407008307 2011-01-10T03:56:19Z Graham87 194203 1 revision from [[:nost:AfghanistanGeography]]: import old edit, see [[User:Graham87/Import]] #REDIRECT [[Geography of Afghanistan]] {{R from CamelCase}} 15 135089040 2007-06-01T13:59:37Z RussBot 279219 Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Demographics of Afghanistan" +"Demography of Afghanistan" #REDIRECT [[Demography of Afghanistan]] {{R from CamelCase}} 18 74466499 2006-09-08T04:14:42Z Rory096 750223 cat rd #REDIRECT [[Communications in Afghanistan]] {{R from CamelCase}} 19 409266982 2011-01-22T00:37:20Z Asklepiades 930338 #REDIRECT [[Transport in Afghanistan]] {{R from CamelCase}} {{R unprintworthy}} 20 74466354 2006-09-08T04:13:27Z Rory096 750223 cat rd #REDIRECT [[Military of Afghanistan]] {{R from CamelCase}} 21 46448859 2006-04-01T12:08:42Z Gurch 241822 {{R from CamelCase}} #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]] {{R from CamelCase}} 23 74466798 2006-09-08T04:17:00Z Rory096 750223 cat rd #REDIRECT [[Assistive_technology]] {{R from CamelCase}} 24 74466889 2006-09-08T04:17:51Z Rory096 750223 cat rd #REDIRECT [[Amoeboid]] {{R from CamelCase}} 25 434287987 2011-06-14T19:46:55Z Xqbot 8066546 robot Modifying: [[ku:Ot0x00EEzm]] {{pp-semi-indef}} {{dablink|This article is about the classic autistic disorder; some writers use the word ''autism'' when referring to the range of disorders on the [[autism spectrum]] or to the various [[pervasive developmental disorder]]s.<ref name=Caronna/>}} {{pp-move-indef}} <!-- NOTES: 1) Please follow the Wikipedia style guidelines for editing medical articles [[WP:MEDMOS]]. 2) Use <ref> for explicitly cited references. 3) Reference anything you put here with notable references, as this subject tends to attract a lot of controversy.--> {{pp-move-indef}} {{Infobox Disease | Name = Autism | Image = Autism-stacking-cans 2nd edit.jpg | Alt = Young red-haired boy facing away from camera, stacking a seventh can atop a column of six food cans on the kitchen floor. An open pantry contains many more cans. | Caption = Repetitively stacking or lining up objects is a behavior occasionally associated with individuals with autism. | DiseasesDB = 1142 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|84|0|f|80}} | ICD9 = 299.00 | ICDO = | OMIM = 209850 | MedlinePlus = 001526 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 3202 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|ped|180}} | MeshID = D001321 | GeneReviewsID = autism-overview | GeneReviewsName = Autism overview }} '''Autism''' is a [[Neurodevelopmental disorder|disorder of neural development]] characterized by impaired [[Interpersonal relationship|social interaction]] and [[communication]], and by restricted and repetitive behavior. These signs all begin before a child is three years old.<ref name=DSM-IV-TR-299.00/> Autism affects information processing in the [[Human brain|brain]] by altering how nerve cells and their [[synapse]]s connect and organize; how this occurs is not well understood.<ref name=Levy/> It is one of three recognized disorders in the [[autism spectrum]] (ASDs), the other two being [[Asperger syndrome]], which lacks delays in cognitive development and language, and [[PDD-NOS|Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified]] (commonly abbreviated as PDD-NOS), which is diagnosed when the full set of criteria for autism or Asperger syndrome are not met.<ref name=Johnson/> Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the [[Heritability of autism|genetics of autism]] are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare [[mutation]]s, or by rare combinations of common genetic variants.<ref name=Abrahams/> In rare cases, autism is strongly associated with [[Teratology|agents that cause birth defects]].<ref name=Arndt/> [[Controversies in autism|Controversies]] surround other proposed environmental [[Causes of autism|causes]], such as [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]], [[pesticide]]s or childhood [[vaccine]]s;<ref name=Rutter/> the vaccine hypotheses are biologically implausible and lack convincing scientific evidence.<ref name=GerberOffit2009>{{cite journal |author= Gerber JS, Offit PA |title= Vaccines and autism: a tale of shifting hypotheses |journal= Clin Infect Dis |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=4560x201361 |year=2009 |pmid=19128068 |pmc= 2908388 |doi=10.1086/596476 |url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/4/456.full |laysummary=http://www.idsociety.org/Content.aspx?id=13336 |laysource=IDSA |laydate=2009-01-30}}</ref> The [[prevalence]] of autism is about 10x20132 per 1,000 people worldwide; however, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) reports approximately 9 per 1,000 children in the United States are diagnosed with ASD.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html CDC Data|title=Autism Spectrum Disorders - Data & Statistics|work=[[Center for Disease Control and Prevention]]|date=May 13, 2010|accessdate=December 25, 2010}}</ref><ref name=vaccines/> The number of people diagnosed with autism has increased dramatically since the 1980s, partly due to changes in diagnostic practice; the question of whether actual prevalence has increased is unresolved.<ref name=Newschaffer/> Parents usually notice signs in the first two years of their child's life.<ref name=CCD/> The signs usually develop gradually, but some autistic children first develop more normally and then [[Regressive autism|regress]].<ref name=Stefanatos/> Early [[Lovaas technique|behavioral]] or cognitive intervention can help autistic children gain self-care, social, and communication skills.<ref name=CCD/> Although there is no known cure,<ref name=CCD/> there have been reported cases of children who recovered.<ref name=Helt/> Not many children with autism live independently after reaching adulthood, though some become successful.<ref name=Howlin/> An [[Sociological and cultural aspects of autism|autistic culture]] has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be accepted as a difference and not treated as a disorder.<ref name=Silverman/> ==Characteristics== Autism is a highly variable [[neurodevelopmental disorder]]<ref name=Geschwind/> that first appears during infancy or childhood, and generally follows a steady course without [[Remission (medicine)|remission]].<ref name=ICD-10-F84.0/> Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months, become established by age two or three years,<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Rogers SJ |title=What are infant siblings teaching us about autism in infancy? |title.= |journal=Autism Res |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=1250x201337 |year=2009 |pmid=19582867 |doi=10.1002/aur.81 |pmc=2791538 }}</ref> and tend to continue through adulthood, although often in more muted form.<ref name=Rapin/> It is distinguished not by a single symptom, but by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction; impairments in communication; and restricted interests and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis.<ref name=Filipek/> Autism's individual symptoms occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits.<ref name=London/> ===Social development=== Social deficits distinguish autism and the related [[autism spectrum disorder]]s (ASD; see ''[[#Classification|Classification]]'') from other developmental disorders.<ref name=Rapin/> People with autism have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Noted autistic [[Temple Grandin]] described her inability to understand the [[social communication]] of [[neurotypical]]s, or people with normal [[neural development]], as leaving her feeling "like an anthropologist on Mars".<ref>{{vcite book |title=[[An Anthropologist on Mars]]: Seven Paradoxical Tales |author=[[Oliver Sacks|Sacks O]] |publisher=Knopf |year=1995 |isbn=0-679-43785-1 }}</ref> Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood.<!-- ref name=Volkmar/ --> Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from [[social norms]]; for example, they have less [[eye contact]] and turn taking, and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as the deficiency to point at things.<ref name=Volkmar/> Three- to five-year-old autistic children are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate nonverbally, and take turns with others. However, they do form [[Attachment (psychology)|attachments]] to their primary caregivers.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year=2004 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=2210x201333 |title=Early detection of core deficits in autism |author=Sigman M, Dijamco A, Gratier M, Rozga A |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20046 |pmid=15666338 }}</ref> Most autistic children display moderately less [[Attachment in children#Secure attachment|attachment security]] than non-autistic children, although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less severe ASD.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |year=2004 |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=11230x201334 |title=Autism and attachment: a meta-analytic review |author=Rutgers AH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH, van Berckelaer-Onnes IA |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.t01-1-00305.x |pmid=15257669 }}</ref> Older children and adults with ASD perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition.<ref name=Sigman>{{vcite journal |journal=Annu Rev Clin Psychol |year=2006 |volume=2 |pages=3270x201355 |title=Autism from developmental and neuropsychological perspectives |author=Sigman M, Spence SJ, Wang AT |doi=10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095210 |pmid=17716073 }}</ref> Children with high-functioning autism suffer from more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that children with autism prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for those with autism. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply.<ref name=Burgess/> There are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The limited data suggest that, in children with mental retardation, autism is associated with aggression, destruction of property, and tantrums. A 2007 study interviewed parents of 67 children with ASD and reported that about two-thirds of the children had periods of severe tantrums and about one-third had a history of aggression, with tantrums significantly more common than in non-autistic children with language impairments.<ref name=Dominick/> A 2008 Swedish study found that, of individuals aged 15 or older discharged from hospital with a diagnosis of ASD, those who committed violent crimes were significantly more likely to have other psychopathological conditions such as [[psychosis]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Interpers Violence |year=2008 |title=Risk factors for violent offending in autism spectrum disorder: a national study of hospitalized individuals |author=L0x00E5ngstr0x00F6m N, Grann M, Ruchkin V, Sj0x00F6stedt G, Fazel S |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=13580x201370 |doi=10.1177/0886260508322195 |pmid=18701743 }}</ref> ===Communication=== About a third to a half of individuals with autism do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Intellect Disabil Res |year=2006 |volume=50 |issue=9 |pages=6210x201332 |title=The ComFor: an instrument for the indication of augmentative communication in people with autism and intellectual disability |author=Noens I, van Berckelaer-Onnes I, Verpoorten R, van Duijn G |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00807.x |pmid=16901289 }}</ref> Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of [[babbling]], unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, autistic children have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Autistic children are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words ([[echolalia]])<ref name=Landa/><ref name=Tager-Flusberg/> or [[Pronoun reversal|reverse pronouns]].<ref name=Kanner1943/> [[Joint attention]] seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD:<ref name=Johnson>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2007 |volume=120 |issue=5 |pages=11830x2013215 |title=Identification and evaluation of children with autism spectrum disorders |author=Johnson CP, Myers SM, Council on Children with Disabilities |doi=10.1542/peds.2007-2361 |pmid=17967920 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/120/5/1183 |laysummary=http://aap.org/advocacy/releases/oct07autism.htm |laysource=AAP |laydate=2007-10-29 }}</ref> for example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the pointed-at object,<ref name=Volkmar/><ref name=Tager-Flusberg/> and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience.<ref name=Johnson/> Autistic children may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language.<ref name=Landa>{{vcite journal |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year=2007 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=160x201325 |title=Early communication development and intervention for children with autism |author=Landa R |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20134 |pmid=17326115 }}</ref><ref name=Tager-Flusberg>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatr Clin North Am |year=2007 |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=4690x201381 |title=Language disorders: autism and other pervasive developmental disorders |author=Tager-Flusberg H, Caronna E |doi=10.1016/j.pcl.2007.02.011 |pmid=17543905 }}</ref> In a pair of studies, high-functioning autistic children aged 80x201315 performed equally well as, and adults better than, individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comprehension and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends.<ref name=Williams/> ===Repetitive behavior=== Autistic individuals display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R)<ref name=Lam-Aman/> categorizes as follows. [[File:Autistic-sweetiepie-boy-with-ducksinarow.jpg|thumb|alt=Young boy asleep on a bed, facing the camera, with only the head visible and the body off-camera. On the bed behind the boy's head is a dozen or so toys carefully arranged in a line, ordered by size.|A young boy with autism, and the precise line of toys he made]] *'''[[Stereotypy]]''' is repetitive movement, such as hand flapping, making sounds, head rolling, or body rocking. *'''[[Compulsive behavior]]''' is intended and appears to follow rules, such as arranging objects in stacks or lines. *'''Sameness''' is resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted. *'''[[Ritual#Psychology|Ritualistic behavior]]''' involves an unvarying pattern of daily activities, such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual. This is closely associated with sameness and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors.<ref name=Lam-Aman>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2007 |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=8550x201366 |title=The Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised: independent validation in individuals with autism spectrum disorders |author=Lam KSL, Aman MG |doi=10.1007/s10803-006-0213-z |pmid=17048092 }}</ref> *'''Restricted behavior''' is limited in focus, interest, or activity, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game. *'''[[Self-injury]]''' includes movements that injure or can injure the person, such as eye poking, [[skin picking]], hand biting, and head banging.<ref name=Johnson/> A 2007 study reported that self-injury at some point affected about 30% of children with ASD.<ref name=Dominick/> No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but only autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2000 |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=2370x201343 |title=Varieties of repetitive behavior in autism: comparisons to mental retardation |author=Bodfish JW, Symons FJ, Parker DE, Lewis MH |doi=10.1023/A:1005596502855 |pmid=11055459 }}</ref> ===Other symptoms=== Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but that can affect the individual or the family.<ref name=Filipek>{{vcite journal |author=Filipek PA, Accardo PJ, Baranek GT ''et al.'' |author.= |title=The screening and diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=1999 |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=4390x201384 |doi=10.1023/A:1021943802493 |pmid=10638459 }} This paper represents a consensus of representatives from nine professional and four parent organizations in the US.</ref> An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities, ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious [[Savant syndrome|autistic savant]]s.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Treffert DA |title=The savant syndrome: an extraordinary condition. A synopsis: past, present, future |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=364 |issue=1522 |pages=13510x20137 |year=2009 |pmid=19528017 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0326 |url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1351.full |laysummary=http://www.wisconsinmedicalsociety.org/savant_syndrome/overview_of_savant_syndrome |laysource=Wisconsin Medical Society |pmc=2677584 }}</ref> Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention, relative to the general population.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Plaisted Grant K, Davis G |title=Perception and apperception in autism: rejecting the inverse assumption |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=364 |issue=1522 |pages=13930x20138 |year=2009 |pmid=19528022 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2009.0001 |pmc=2677593 |url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1393.full }}</ref> [[Sensory system|Sensory]] abnormalities are found in over 90% of those with autism, and are considered core features by some,<ref name=Geschwind-2009>{{vcite journal |author=Geschwind DH |title=Advances in autism |journal=Annu Rev Med |volume=60 |pages=3670x201380 |year=2009 |pmid=19630577 |doi=10.1146/annurev.med.60.053107.121225 }}</ref> although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |year=2005 |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=12550x201368 |title=Annotation: what do we know about sensory dysfunction in autism? A critical review of the empirical evidence |author=Rogers SJ, Ozonoff S |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01431.x |pmid=16313426 }}</ref> Differences are greater for under-responsivity (for example, walking into things) than for over-responsivity (for example, distress from loud noises) or for sensation seeking (for example, rhythmic movements).<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2009 |title=A meta-analysis of sensory modulation symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorders |author=Ben-Sasson A, Hen L, Fluss R, Cermak SA, Engel-Yeger B, Gal E |doi=10.1007/s10803-008-0593-3 |pmid=18512135 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=10x201311 }}</ref> An estimated 60%0x201380% of autistic people have motor signs that include [[poor muscle tone]], [[Apraxia|poor motor planning]], and [[toe walking]];<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in autism proper.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Fournier KA, Hass CJ, Naik SK, Lodha N, Cauraugh JH |title=Motor coordination in autism spectrum disorders: a synthesis and meta-analysis |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |volume= |issue= |pages= |year=2010 |pmid=20195737 |doi=10.1007/s10803-010-0981-3 }}</ref> Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur;<ref name=Dominick>{{vcite journal |journal=Res Dev Disabil |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=1450x201362 |title=Atypical behaviors in children with autism and children with a history of language impairment |author=Dominick KC, Davis NO, Lainhart J, Tager-Flusberg H, Folstein S |doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2006.02.003 |pmid=16581226 }}</ref> this does not appear to result in [[malnutrition]]. Although some children with autism also have [[gastrointestinal]] (GI) symptoms, there is a lack of published rigorous data to support the theory that autistic children have more or different GI symptoms than usual;<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2005 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=7130x201327 |title=Gastrointestinal factors in autistic disorder: a critical review |author=Erickson CA, Stigler KA, Corkins MR, Posey DJ, Fitzgerald JF, McDougle CJ |doi=10.1007/s10803-005-0019-4 |pmid=16267642 }}</ref> studies report conflicting results, and the relationship between GI problems and ASD is unclear.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Buie T, Campbell DB, Fuchs GJ 3rd ''et al.'' |author.= |title=Evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of gastrointestinal disorders in individuals with ASDs: a consensus report |journal=Pediatrics |volume=125 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S10x201318 |year=2010 |pmid=20048083 |doi=10.1542/peds.2009-1878C |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/125/Supplement_1/S1 }}</ref> Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of stress.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2007 |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=e10400x20136 |title=Psychological functioning and coping among mothers of children with autism: a population-based study |author=Montes G, Halterman JS |doi=10.1542/peds.2006-2819 |pmid=17473077 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/119/5/e1040 }}</ref> Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children or those with [[Down syndrome]]; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well-being and poorer sibling relationships as adults.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year=2007 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=3130x201320 |title=Siblings of individuals with autism spectrum disorders across the life course |author=Orsmond GI, Seltzer MM |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20171 |pmid=17979200 |url=http://www.waisman.wisc.edu/family/pubs/Autism/2007%20siblings_autism_life-course.pdf |format=PDF }}</ref> ==Classification== Autism is one of the five [[pervasive developmental disorder]]s (PDD), which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, and severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior.<ref name=ICD-10-F84.0/> These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance.<ref name=Rapin/> Of the five PDD forms, [[Asperger syndrome]] is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; [[Rett syndrome]] and [[childhood disintegrative disorder]] share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; [[PDD not otherwise specified]] (PDD-NOS; also called ''atypical autism'') is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Volkmar FR, State M, Klin A |title=Autism and autism spectrum disorders: diagnostic issues for the coming decade |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |volume=50 |issue=10x20132 |pages=1080x201315 |year=2009 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02010.x |pmid=19220594 }}</ref> Unlike with autism, people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in [[language development]].<ref name=DSM-IV-TR-299.00/> The terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS often called the ''autism spectrum disorders'' (ASD)<ref name=CCD/> or sometimes the ''autistic disorders'',<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Freitag CM |title=The genetics of autistic disorders and its clinical relevance: a review of the literature |journal=Mol Psychiatry |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=20x201322 |year=2007 |doi=10.1038/sj.mp.4001896 |pmid=17033636 }}</ref> whereas autism itself is often called ''autistic disorder'', ''childhood autism'', or ''infantile autism''. In this article, ''autism'' refers to the classic autistic disorder; in clinical practice, though, ''autism'', ''ASD'', and ''PDD'' are often used interchangeably.<ref name=Caronna/> ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism [[phenotype]], which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like [[Trait (biology)|traits]], such as avoiding eye contact.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Piven J, Palmer P, Jacobi D, Childress D, Arndt S |title=Broader autism phenotype: evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families |journal=Am J Psychiatry |year=1997 |volume=154 |issue=2 |pages=1850x201390 |pmid=9016266 |url=http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/reprint/154/2/185.pdf |format=PDF }}</ref> The manifestations of autism cover a wide [[Spectrum disorder|spectrum]], ranging from individuals with severe impairments0x2014who may be silent, [[mentally disabled]], and locked into hand flapping and rocking0x2014to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches, narrowly focused interests, and verbose, [[pedantic]] communication.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Happ0x00E9 F |title=Understanding assets and deficits in autism: why success is more interesting than failure |journal=Psychologist |volume=12 |issue=11 |pages=5400x20137 |year=1999 |url=http://www.thepsychologist.org.uk/archive/archive_home.cfm/volumeID_12-editionID_46-ArticleID_133-getfile_getPDF/thepsychologist/psy_11_99_p540-547_happe.pdf |format=PDF }}</ref> Because the behavior spectrum is continuous, boundaries between diagnostic categories are necessarily somewhat arbitrary.<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> Sometimes the syndrome is divided into low-, medium- or [[high-functioning autism]] (LFA, MFA, and HFA), based on [[IQ]] thresholds,<ref>{{vcite journal |author=[[Simon Baron-Cohen|Baron-Cohen S]] |title=The hyper-systemizing, assortative mating theory of autism |journal=Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry |year=2006 |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=8650x201372 |doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.01.010 |pmid=16519981 |url=http://autismresearchcentre.com/docs/papers/2006_BC_Neuropsychophamacology.pdf |format=PDF }}</ref> or on how much support the individual requires in daily life; these subdivisions are not standardized and are controversial. Autism can also be divided into [[Syndrome|syndromal]] and non-syndromal autism; the syndromal autism is associated with severe or profound [[mental retardation]] or a congenital syndrome with physical symptoms, such as [[tuberous sclerosis]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2005 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1030x201316 |title=Specific genetic disorders and autism: clinical contribution towards their identification |author=Cohen D, Pichard N, Tordjman S ''et al.'' |author.= |doi=10.1007/s10803-004-1038-2 |pmid=15796126 }}</ref> Although individuals with Asperger syndrome tend to perform better cognitively than those with autism, the extent of the [[Diagnosis of Asperger syndrome#Differences from high-functioning autism|overlap between Asperger syndrome, HFA, and non-syndromal autism]] is unclear.<ref>Validity of ASD subtypes: *{{vcite journal |journal=Rev Bras Psiquiatr |year=2006 |volume=28 |issue=suppl 1 |pages=S30x2013S11 |title=Autism and Asperger syndrome: an overview |author=Klin A |doi=10.1590/S1516-44462006000500002 |pmid=16791390 |url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-44462006000500002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en }} *{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |volume=38 |issue=9 |pages=16110x201324 |year=2008 |title=Examining the validity of autism spectrum disorder subtypes |author=Witwer AN, Lecavalier L |doi=10.1007/s10803-008-0541-2 |pmid=18327636 }}</ref> Some studies have reported diagnoses of autism in children due to a loss of language or social skills, as opposed to a failure to make progress, typically from 15 to 30 months of age. The validity of this distinction remains controversial; it is possible that [[regressive autism]] is a specific subtype,<ref name=Stefanatos>{{vcite journal |author=Stefanatos GA |title=Regression in autistic spectrum disorders |journal=Neuropsychol Rev |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=3050x201319 |year=2008 |pmid=18956241 |doi=10.1007/s11065-008-9073-y }}</ref><ref name=Volkmar>{{vcite journal |author=Volkmar F, Chawarska K, Klin A |title=Autism in infancy and early childhood |journal=Annu Rev Psychol |year=2005 |volume=56 |pages=3150x201336 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070159 |pmid=15709938 }} A partial update is in: {{vcite journal |journal=World Psychiatry |year=2008 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=190x201321 |title=Autism in infants: an update |author=Volkmar FR, Chawarska K |pmid=18458791 |pmc=2366821 }}</ref><ref name=Landa/><ref name=Landa3/> or that there is a continuum of behaviors between autism with and without regression.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Ozonoff S, Heung K, Byrd R, Hansen R, [[Irva Hertz-Picciotto|Hertz-Picciotto I]] |title=The onset of autism: patterns of symptom emergence in the first years of life |journal=Autism Res |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=3200x2013328 |year=2008 |pmid=19360687 |doi=10.1002/aur.53 }}</ref> Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subpopulations<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2008 |volume=121 |issue=6 |pages=12250x20139 |title=Autism and the environment: challenges and opportunities for research |author=Altevogt BM, Hanson SL, Leshner AI |doi=10.1542/peds.2007-3000 |pmid=18519493 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/121/6/1225 }}</ref> and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of [[psychiatry]], [[psychology]], [[neurology]] and [[pediatrics]].<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Reiss AL |title=Childhood developmental disorders: an academic and clinical convergence point for psychiatry, neurology, psychology and pediatrics |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |volume=50 |issue=1-2 |pages=870x201398 |year=2009 |pmid=19220592 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02046.x }}</ref> Newer technologies such as [[fMRI]] and [[diffusion tensor imaging]] can help identify biologically relevant [[phenotype]]s (observable traits) that can be viewed on [[brain scan]]s, to help further [[neurogenetic]] studies of autism;<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Piggot J, Shirinyan D, Shemmassian S, Vazirian S, Alarc0x00F3n M |title=Neural systems approaches to the neurogenetics of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Neuroscience |volume=164 |issue=1 |pages=2470x201356 |year=2009 |pmid=19482063 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.05.054 }}</ref> one example is lowered activity in the [[fusiform face area]] of the brain, which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects.<ref name=Levy/> It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Am J Hum Genet |year=2008 |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=70x20139 |title=Unraveling autism |author=Stephan DA |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.12.003 |pmid=18179879 |pmc=2253980 }}</ref> ==Causes== {{main|Causes of autism}} It has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms.<ref name=Fractionable/> However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur.<ref name=Fractionable>{{vcite journal |author=Happ0x00E9 F, Ronald A |title=The 'fractionable autism triad': a review of evidence from behavioural, genetic, cognitive and neural research |journal=[[Neuropsychol Rev]] |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=2870x2013304 |year=2008 |pmid=18956240 |doi=10.1007/s11065-008-9076-8 }}</ref><ref name=HappeTime/> [[File:Single Chromosome Mutations.png|thumb|alt=Three diagrams of chromosome pairs A, B that are nearly identical. 1: B is missing a segment of A. 2: B has two adjacent copies of a segment of A. 3: B's copy of A's segment is in reverse order.|Deletion (1), duplication (2) and inversion (3) are all [[chromosome abnormalities]] that have been implicated in autism.<ref name=Beaudet/>]] Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the [[Heritability of autism|genetics of autism]] are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare [[mutation]]s with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants.<ref name=Abrahams>{{vcite journal |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nat Rev Genet]] |year=2008 |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=3410x201355 |title=Advances in autism genetics: on the threshold of a new neurobiology |author=Abrahams BS, Geschwind DH |doi=10.1038/nrg2346 |pmid=18414403 |pmc=2756414 }}</ref><ref>{{vcite journal |author=Buxbaum JD |title=Multiple rare variants in the etiology of autism spectrum disorders |journal=[[Dialogues Clin Neurosci]] |year=2009 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=350x201343 |pmid=19432386 |url=http://www.dialogues-cns.org/brochures/40/htm/40_34.asp }}</ref> Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and [[epigenetic]] factors which do not change [[DNA]] but are heritable and influence [[gene expression]].<ref name=Rapin>{{vcite journal |author=Rapin I, Tuchman RF |title=Autism: definition, neurobiology, screening, diagnosis |journal=[[Pediatr Clin North Am]] |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=11290x201346 |year=2008 |pmid=18929056 |doi=10.1016/j.pcl.2008.07.005 }}</ref> Studies of twins suggest that [[heritability]] is 0.7 for autism and as high as 0.9 for ASD, and siblings of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population.<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> However, most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified. Typically, autism cannot be traced to a [[Mendelian]] (single-gene) mutation or to a single [[chromosome abnormality]] like [[fragile X syndrome]], and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs have been shown to selectively cause ASD.<ref name=Abrahams/> Numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene.<ref name=Abrahams/> The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from [[copy number variation]]s0x2014spontaneous [[Deletion (genetics)|deletions]] or [[Gene duplication|duplications]] in genetic material during [[meiosis]].<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Cook EH, Scherer SW |title=Copy-number variations associated with neuropsychiatric conditions |journal=Nature |volume=455 |issue=7215 |pages=9190x201323 |year=2008 |pmid=18923514 |doi=10.1038/nature07458 }}</ref> Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome.<ref name=Beaudet>{{vcite journal |author=Beaudet AL |title=Autism: highly heritable but not inherited |journal=Nat Med |year=2007 |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=5340x20136 |pmid=17479094 |doi=10.1038/nm0507-534 }}</ref> Several lines of evidence point to [[Synapse|synaptic]] dysfunction as a cause of autism.<ref name=Levy/> Some rare mutations may lead to autism by disrupting some synaptic pathways, such as those involved with [[cell adhesion]].<ref name=Betancur>{{vcite journal |author=Betancur C, Sakurai T, Buxbaum JD |title=The emerging role of synaptic cell-adhesion pathways in the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorders |journal=[[Trends Neurosci]] |volume=32 |issue=7 |pages=4020x201312 |year=2009 |pmid=19541375 |doi=10.1016/j.tins.2009.04.003 }}</ref> Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes.<ref name=Walsh>{{vcite journal |author=Walsh CA, Morrow EM, Rubenstein JL |title=Autism and brain development |journal=[[Cell (journal)|Cell]] |volume=135 |issue=3 |pages=3960x2013400 |year=2008 |pmid=18984148 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.015 |pmc=2701104 }}</ref> All known [[teratogen]]s (agents that cause [[birth defect]]s) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from [[Human fertilization|conception]], and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, it is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development.<ref name=Arndt>{{vcite journal |journal=[[Int J Dev Neurosci]] |year=2005 |volume=23 |issue=20x20133 |pages=1890x201399 |title=The teratology of autism |author=Arndt TL, Stodgell CJ, Rodier PM |doi=10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2004.11.001 |pmid=15749245 }}</ref> Although evidence for other environmental causes is anecdotal and has not been confirmed by reliable studies,<ref name=Rutter/> extensive searches are underway.<ref name=Szpir>{{vcite journal |journal=[[Environ Health Perspect]] |year=2006 |volume=114 |issue=7 |pages=A4120x20138 |title=Tracing the origins of autism: a spectrum of new studies |author=Szpir M |url=http://www.ehponline.org/members/2006/114-7/focus.html |pmid=16835042 |pmc=1513312 }}</ref> [[Environmental factor]]s that have been claimed to contribute to or exacerbate autism, or may be important in future research, include certain foods, [[infectious disease]], [[heavy metals]], [[solvent]]s, [[diesel exhaust]], [[PCBs]], [[phthalates]] and [[phenol]]s used in [[plastic]] products, [[pesticide]]s, [[brominated flame retardant]]s, [[Ethanol|alcohol]], [[smoking]], [[illicit drug]]s, [[vaccine]]s,<ref name=Newschaffer/> and [[prenatal stress]],<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=[[Neurosci Biobehav Rev]] |year=2008 |title=Prenatal stress and risk for autism |author=Kinney DK, Munir KM, Crowley DJ, Miller AM |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.06.004 |pmid=18598714 |volume=32 |issue=8 |pages=15190x201332 |pmc=2632594 }}</ref> although no links have been found, and some have been completely dis-proven. Parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination. This has led to unsupported theories blaming [[Vaccine controversy#Vaccine overload|vaccine "overload"]], a [[Thiomersal controversy|vaccine preservative]] or the [[MMR vaccine controversy|MMR vaccine]] for causing autism.<ref name=GerberOffit2009/> The latter theory was supported by litigation-funded study that has since been shown to have been "an elaborate fraud".<ref name=WakefieldarticleBMJ>{{cite journal |year= 2011 |pages= c7452 |volume= 342:c7452 |title= Wakefield's article linking MMR vaccine and autism was fraudulent |author= Godlee F, Smith J, Marcovitch H |journal = [[BMJ]] |url=http://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.c7452.full |doi = 10.1136/bmj.c7452}}</ref> Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible,<ref name=GerberOffit2009/> parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of [[childhood immunizations]], [[MMR vaccine controversy#Disease outbreaks|outbreaks of previously-controlled childhood diseases]] in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.<ref name=vaccines>Vaccines and autism: *{{vcite journal |journal=[[Can J Neurol Sci]] |year=2006 |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=3410x20136 |title=Immunizations and autism: a review of the literature |author=Doja A, Roberts W |pmid=17168158 }} *{{vcite journal |author=Gerber JS, [[Paul Offit|Offit PA]] |title=Vaccines and autism: a tale of shifting hypotheses |journal=[[Clin Infect Dis]] |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=4560x201361 |year=2009 |pmid=19128068 |pmc= 2908388 |url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/4/456.full|doi=10.1086/596476 |laysummary=http://www.idsociety.org/Content.aspx?id=13336 |laysource=IDSA |laydate=2009-01-30 }} *{{vcite journal |author=Gross L |title=A broken trust: lessons from the vaccine0x2013autism wars |journal=PLoS Biol |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=e1000114 |year=2009 |pmid=19478850 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000114 |pmc=2682483 }} *{{vcite journal |author=Paul R |title=Parents ask: am I risking autism if I vaccinate my children? |journal=[[J Autism Dev Disord]] |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=9620x20133 |year=2009 |pmid=19363650 |doi=10.1007/s10803-009-0739-y }} *{{vcite journal |author= Poland GA, Jacobson RM |title= The Age-Old Struggle against the Antivaccinationists |journal= N Engl J Med |volume= 364 |pages= 970x20139 |date= 2011-01-13 |url= http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1010594}}</ref><ref name=dublin>{{vcite journal |author=McBrien J, Murphy J, Gill D, Cronin M, O'Donovan C, Cafferkey MT |title=Measles outbreak in Dublin, 2000 |journal=Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=5800x20134 |year=2003 |month=July |pmid=12867830 |doi=10.1097/00006454-200307000-00002}}</ref> ==Mechanism== Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain.<!-- ref name=Penn/ --> How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the [[pathophysiology]] of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the [[neuropsychological]] linkages between brain structures and behaviors.<ref name=Penn>{{vcite journal |author=Penn HE |title=Neurobiological correlates of autism: a review of recent research |journal=Child Neuropsychol |year=2006 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=570x201379 |doi=10.1080/09297040500253546 |pmid=16484102 }}</ref> The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies.<ref name=London/> ===Pathophysiology=== [[File:Autismbrain.jpg|thumb|alt=Two diagrams of major brain structures implicated in autism. The upper diagram shows the cerebral cortex near the top and the basal ganglia in the center, just above the amygdala and hippocampus. The lower diagram shows the corpus callosum near the center, the cerebellum in the lower rear, and the brain stem in the lower center.|Autism affects the [[amygdala]], [[cerebellum]], and many other parts of the brain.<ref name=Amaral/>]] Unlike many other brain disorders such as [[Parkinson's]], autism does not have a clear unifying mechanism at either the molecular, cellular, or systems level; it is not known whether autism is a few disorders caused by mutations converging on a few common molecular pathways, or is (like intellectual disability) a large set of disorders with diverse mechanisms.<ref name=Geschwind>{{vcite journal |author=Geschwind DH |title=Autism: many genes, common pathways? |title.= |journal=Cell |volume=135 |issue=3 |pages=3910x20135 |year=2008 |pmid=18984147 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.016 |pmc=2756410 }}</ref> Autism appears to result from developmental factors that affect many or all functional brain systems,<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year=2007 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=850x201395 |title=The study of autism as a distributed disorder |author=M0x00FCller RA |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20141 |pmid=17326118 }}</ref> and to disturb the timing of brain development more than the final product.<ref name=Amaral>{{vcite journal |journal=Trends Neurosci |year=2008 |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=1370x201345 |title=Neuroanatomy of autism |author=[[David Amaral|Amaral DG]], Schumann CM, Nordahl CW |doi=10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.005 |pmid=18258309 }}</ref> [[Neuroanatomical]] studies and the associations with [[teratogens]] strongly suggest that autism's mechanism includes alteration of brain development soon after conception.<ref name=Arndt/> This anomaly appears to start a cascade of pathological events in the brain that are significantly influenced by environmental factors.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Brain Pathol |year=2007 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=4220x201333 |title=The neuropathology of autism |author=Casanova MF |doi=10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00100.x |pmid=17919128 }}</ref> Just after birth, the brains of autistic children tend to grow faster than usual, followed by normal or relatively slower growth in childhood. It is not known whether early overgrowth occurs in all autistic children. It seems to be most prominent in brain areas underlying the development of higher cognitive specialization.<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> Hypotheses for the cellular and molecular bases of pathological early overgrowth include the following: * An excess of [[neuron]]s that causes local overconnectivity in key brain regions.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Neuron |year=2007 |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=3990x2013413 |title=Mapping early brain development in autism |author=Courchesne E, Pierce K, Schumann CM ''et al.'' |author.= |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.016 |pmid=17964254 }}</ref> * Disturbed [[neuronal migration]] during early [[gestation]].<ref name=Schmitz/><ref name=Persico>{{vcite journal |author=Persico AM, Bourgeron T |title=Searching for ways out of the autism maze: genetic, epigenetic and environmental clues |journal=Trends Neurosci |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=3490x201358 |year=2006 |pmid=16808981 |doi=10.1016/j.tins.2006.05.010 }}</ref> * Unbalanced excitatory0x2013inhibitory networks.<ref name=Persico/> * Abnormal formation of [[synapse]]s and [[dendritic spine]]s,<ref name=Persico/> for example, by modulation of the [[neurexin]]0x2013[[neuroligin]] [[Cell adhesion|cell-adhesion]] system,<ref>{{vcite journal |author=S0x00FCdhof TC |title=Neuroligins and neurexins link synaptic function to cognitive disease |journal=Nature |volume=455 |issue=7215 |pages=9030x201311 |year=2008 |pmid=18923512 |doi=10.1038/nature07456 |pmc=2673233 }}</ref> or by poorly regulated [[Protein synthesis|synthesis]] of synaptic proteins.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Kelleher RJ 3rd, Bear MF |title=The autistic neuron: troubled translation? |title.= |journal=Cell |volume=135 |issue=3 |pages=4010x20136 |year=2008 |pmid=18984149 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.017 }}</ref><ref>{{vcite journal |author=Bear MF, D0x00F6len G, Osterweil E, Nagarajan N |title=Fragile X: translation in action. |title.= |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=840x20137 |year=2008 |pmid=17940551 |doi=0.1038/sj.npp.1301610 }}</ref> Disrupted synaptic development may also contribute to [[epilepsy]], which may explain why the two conditions are associated.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Tuchman R, Mosh0x00E9 SL, Rapin I |title=Convulsing toward the pathophysiology of autism |journal=Brain Dev |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=950x2013103 |year=2009 |pmid=19006654 |doi=10.1016/j.braindev.2008.09.009 |pmc=2734903 }}</ref> Interactions between the [[immune system]] and the [[nervous system]] begin early during the [[Human embryogenesis|embryonic stage]] of life, and successful neurodevelopment depends on a balanced immune response. It is possible that aberrant immune activity during critical periods of neurodevelopment is part of the mechanism of some forms of ASD.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Leukoc Biol |year=2006 |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=10x201315 |title=The immune response in autism: a new frontier for autism research |author=Ashwood P, Wills S, Van de Water J |doi=10.1189/jlb.1205707 |pmid=16698940 |url=http://www.jleukbio.org/cgi/content/full/80/1/1 }}</ref> Although some abnormalities in the immune system have been found in specific subgroups of autistic individuals, it is not known whether these abnormalities are relevant to or secondary to autism's disease processes.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Res Autism Spectr Disord |volume=3 |issue=4 |year=2009 |pages=8400x201360 |doi=10.1016/j.rasd.2009.01.007 |author=Stigler KA, Sweeten TL, Posey DJ, McDougle CJ |title=Autism and immune factors: a comprehensive review }}</ref> As [[autoantibodies]] are found in conditions other than ASD, and are not always present in ASD,<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Ann N Y Acad Sci |year=2007 |volume=1107 |pages=790x201391 |title=Autoantibodies in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) |author=Wills S, Cabanlit M, Bennett J, Ashwood P, Amaral D, Van de Water J |doi=10.1196/annals.1381.009 |pmid=17804535 }}</ref> the relationship between immune disturbances and autism remains unclear and controversial.<ref name=Schmitz>{{vcite journal |journal=Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol |year=2008 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=40x201311 |title=The neuropathology of autism: where do we stand? |title.= |author=Schmitz C, Rezaie P |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2990.2007.00872.x |pmid=17971078 }}</ref> The relationship of [[neurochemical]]s to autism is not well understood; several have been investigated, with the most evidence for the role of [[serotonin]] and of genetic differences in its transport.<ref name=Levy>{{vcite journal |author=Levy SE, Mandell DS, Schultz RT |title=Autism |journal=Lancet |volume=374 |issue=9701 |pages=16270x201338 |year=2009 |pmid=19819542 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61376-3 |pmc=2863325}}</ref> Others have pointed to a role for group I [[metabotropic glutamate receptors]] [[(mGluR)]] in the pathogenesis of one type of autism, [[Fragile X]].<ref name="pmid18093519">{{cite journal |author = D0x00F6len G, Osterweil E, Rao BS, Smith GB, Auerbach BD, Chattarji S, Bear MF | title = Correction of fragile X syndrome in mice | journal = Neuron | volume = 56 | issue = 6 | pages = 9550x201362| year = 2007 | pmid = 18093519 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.12.001 | pmc=2199268}}</ref> Some data suggest an increase in several [[growth hormone]]s; other data argue for diminished [[growth factor]]s.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Hughes JR |title=A review of recent reports on autism: 1000 studies published in 2007 |journal=Epilepsy Behav |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=4250x201337 |year=2008 |pmid=18627794 |doi=10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.06.015 }}</ref> Also, some [[inborn errors of metabolism]] are associated with autism but probably account for less than 5% of cases.<ref name=Manzi/> The [[mirror neuron system]] (MNS) theory of autism hypothesizes that distortion in the development of the MNS interferes with imitation and leads to autism's core features of social impairment and communication difficulties. The MNS operates when an animal performs an action or observes another animal perform the same action. The MNS may contribute to an individual's understanding of other people by enabling the modeling of their behavior via embodied simulation of their actions, intentions, and emotions.<ref>MNS and autism: *{{vcite journal |journal=Autism Res |year=2008 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=730x201390 |title=Self0x2013other relations in social development and autism: multiple roles for mirror neurons and other brain bases |author=Williams JHG |doi=10.1002/aur.15 |pmid=19360654 }} *{{vcite journal |journal=Curr Biol |year=2008 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=R130x20138 |title=A mirror up to nature |author=Dinstein I, Thomas C, Behrmann M, Heeger DJ |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.004 |pmid=18177704 |pmc=2517574 }}</ref> Several studies have tested this hypothesis by demonstrating structural abnormalities in MNS regions of individuals with ASD, delay in the activation in the core circuit for imitation in individuals with Asperger syndrome, and a correlation between reduced MNS activity and severity of the syndrome in children with ASD.<ref name=Iacoboni>{{vcite journal |journal=Nat Rev Neurosci |year=2006 |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=9420x201351 |title=The mirror neuron system and the consequences of its dysfunction |author=Iacoboni M, Dapretto M |doi=10.1038/nrn2024 |pmid=17115076 }}</ref> However, individuals with autism also have abnormal brain activation in many circuits outside the MNS<ref>{{vcite journal |author=[[Uta Frith|Frith U]], Frith CD |year=2003 |title=Development and neurophysiology of mentalizing |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=358 |issue=1431 |pages=4590x201373 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2002.1218 |pmid=12689373 |pmc=1693139 |url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/358/1431/459.full.pdf |format=PDF }}</ref> and the MNS theory does not explain the normal performance of autistic children on imitation tasks that involve a goal or object.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Q J Exp Psychol |year=2008 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=1010x201315 |title=Emulation and mimicry for social interaction: a theoretical approach to imitation in autism |author=Hamilton AFdC |doi=10.1080/17470210701508798 |pmid=18038342 |first2=<!-- Work around Citation bot bug. --> |last2=<!-- Work around Citation bot bug. --> }}</ref> [[File:Powell2004Fig1A.jpeg|thumb|upright|alt=A human brain viewed from above. About 10% is highlighted in yellow and 10% in blue. There is only a tiny (perhaps 0.5%) green region where they overlap.|Autistic individuals tend to use different areas of the brain (yellow) for a movement task compared to a control group (blue).<ref name=Powell>{{vcite journal |author=Powell K |title=Opening a window to the autistic brain |journal=PLoS Biol |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=E267 |year=2004 |pmid=15314667 |pmc=509312 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020267 |url=http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.0020267 }}</ref>]] ASD-related patterns of low function and aberrant activation in the brain differ depending on whether the brain is doing social or nonsocial tasks.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Biol Psychiatry |year=2009 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=630x201374 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.09.022 |pmid=18996505 |author=Di Martino A, Ross K, Uddin LQ, Sklar AB, Castellanos FX, Milham MP |title=Functional brain correlates of social and nonsocial processes in autism spectrum disorders: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis }}</ref> In autism there is evidence for reduced functional connectivity of the [[default network]], a large-scale brain network involved in social and emotional processing, with intact connectivity of the [[task-positive network]], used in sustained attention and goal-directed thinking. In people with autism the two networks are not negatively correlated in time, suggesting an imbalance in toggling between the two networks, possibly reflecting a disturbance of [[self-referential]] thought.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Broyd SJ, Demanuele C, Debener S, Helps SK, James CJ, Sonuga-Barke EJS |title=Default-mode brain dysfunction in mental disorders: a systematic review |journal=Neurosci Biobehav Rev |year=2009 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=2790x201396 |pmid=18824195 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.09.002 }}</ref> A 2008 brain-imaging study found a specific pattern of signals in the [[cingulate cortex]] which differs in individuals with ASD.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Neuron |year=2008 |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=4630x201373 |title=Self responses along cingulate cortex reveal quantitative neural phenotype for high-functioning autism |author=Chiu PH, Kayali MA, Kishida KT ''et al.'' |author.= |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2007.12.020 |pmid=18255038 |laysummary=http://www.technologyreview.com/Biotech/20167/ |laysource=Technol Rev |laydate=2007-02-07 }}</ref> The underconnectivity theory of autism hypothesizes that autism is marked by underfunctioning high-level neural connections and synchronization, along with an excess of low-level processes.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Cereb Cortex |year=2007 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=9510x201361 |title=Functional and anatomical cortical underconnectivity in autism: evidence from an FMRI study of an executive function task and corpus callosum morphometry |author=Just MA, Cherkassky VL, Keller TA, Kana RK, Minshew NJ |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhl006 |pmid=16772313 |url=http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/17/4/951 }}</ref> Evidence for this theory has been found in [[functional neuroimaging]] studies on autistic individuals<ref name=Williams>{{vcite journal |author=Williams DL, Goldstein G, Minshew NJ |title=Neuropsychologic functioning in children with autism: further evidence for disordered complex information-processing |journal=Child Neuropsychol |volume=12 |issue=40x20135 |pages=2790x201398 |year=2006 |pmid=16911973 |doi=10.1080/09297040600681190 |pmc=1803025 }}</ref> and by a [[brainwave]] study that suggested that adults with ASD have local overconnectivity in the [[Cerebral cortex|cortex]] and weak functional connections between the [[frontal lobe]] and the rest of the cortex.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Murias M, Webb SJ, Greenson J, Dawson G |title=Resting state cortical connectivity reflected in EEG coherence in individuals with autism |journal=Biol Psychiatry |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=2700x20133 |year=2007 |pmid=17336944 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.11.012 |pmc=2001237 }}</ref> Other evidence suggests the underconnectivity is mainly within each [[Cerebral hemisphere|hemisphere]] of the cortex and that autism is a disorder of the [[Cerebral cortex#Association areas|association cortex]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Arch Neurol |year=2007 |volume=64 |issue=7 |pages=9450x201350 |title=The new neurobiology of autism: cortex, connectivity, and neuronal organization |author=Minshew NJ, Williams DL |pmid=17620483 |doi=10.1001/archneur.64.7.945 |pmc=2597785 }}</ref> From studies based on [[event-related potential]]s, transient changes to the brain's electrical activity in response to stimuli, there is considerable evidence for differences in autistic individuals with respect to attention, orientiation to auditory and visual stimuli, novelty detection, language and face processing, and information storage; several studies have found a preference for non-social stimuli.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Jeste SS, Nelson CA 3rd |title=Event related potentials in the understanding of autism spectrum disorders: an analytical review |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=4950x2013510 |year=2009 |pmid=18850262 |doi=10.1007/s10803-008-0652-9 }}</ref> For example, [[magnetoencephalography]] studies have found evidence in autistic children of delayed responses in the brain's processing of auditory signals.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Roberts TP, Schmidt GL, Egeth M ''et al.'' |author.= |title=Electrophysiological signatures: magnetoencephalographic studies of the neural correlates of language impairment in autism spectrum disorders |journal=Int J Psychophysiol |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=1490x201360 |year=2008 |pmid=18336941 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.01.012 |pmc=2397446 }}</ref> In the genetic area, relations have been found between autism and [[schizophrenia]] based on duplications and deletions of chromosomes; research showed that schizophrenia and autism are significantly more common in combination with [[1q21.1 deletion syndrome]]. Research on autism/schizophrenia relations for chromosome 15 (15q13.3), chromosome 16 (16p13.1) and chromosome 17 (17p12) are inconclusive.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Crespi B, Stead P, Elliot M |title=Evolution in health and medicine Sackler colloquium: Comparative genomics of autism and schizophrenia |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=107 Suppl 1 |pages=17360x201341 |year=2010 |month=January |pmid=19955444 |pmc=2868282 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0906080106}}</ref> ===Neuropsychology=== Two major categories of [[cognitive]] theories have been proposed about the links between autistic brains and behavior. The first category focuses on deficits in [[social cognition]]. The [[empathizing0x2013systemizing theory]] postulates that autistic individuals can systemize0x2014that is, they can develop internal rules of operation to handle events inside the brain0x2014but are less effective at empathizing by handling events generated by other agents. An extension, the extreme male brain theory, hypothesizes that autism is an extreme case of the male brain, defined psychometrically as individuals in whom systemizing is better than empathizing;<ref name=E-S-theory/> this extension is controversial, as many studies contradict the idea that baby boys and girls respond differently to people and objects.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Spelke ES |title=Sex differences in intrinsic aptitude for mathematics and science?: a critical review |journal=Am Psychol |volume=60 |issue=9 |pages=9500x20138 |year=2005 |pmid=16366817 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.60.9.950 |url=http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~lds/pdfs/spelke2005.pdf |format=PDF }}</ref> These theories are somewhat related to the earlier [[theory of mind]] approach, which hypothesizes that autistic behavior arises from an inability to ascribe mental states to oneself and others. The theory of mind hypothesis is supported by autistic children's atypical responses to the [[Sally0x2013Anne test]] for reasoning about others' motivations,<ref name=E-S-theory>{{vcite journal |author=Baron-Cohen S |title=Autism: the empathizing0x2013systemizing (E-S) theory |journal=Ann N Y Acad Sci |volume=1156 |pages=680x201380 |year=2009 |pmid=19338503 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04467.x |url=http://autismresearchcentre.com/docs/papers/2009_BC_nyas.pdf |format=PDF }}</ref> and the mirror neuron system theory of autism described in ''[[#Pathophysiology|Pathophysiology]]'' maps well to the hypothesis.<ref name=Iacoboni/> However, most studies have found no evidence of impairment in autistic individuals' ability to understand other people's basic intentions or goals; instead, data suggests that impairments are found in understanding more complex social emotions or in considering others' viewpoints.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Hamilton AFdC |title=Goals, intentions and mental states: challenges for theories of autism |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |volume=50 |issue=8 |pages=8810x201392 |year=2009 |pmid=19508497 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02098.x }}</ref> The second category focuses on nonsocial or general processing. [[Executive dysfunction]] hypothesizes that autistic behavior results in part from deficits in [[working memory]], planning, [[Inhibition Theory|inhibition]], and other forms of executive function.<ref name=Kenworthy/> Tests of core executive processes such as eye movement tasks indicate improvement from late childhood to adolescence, but performance never reaches typical adult levels.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=O'Hearn K, Asato M, Ordaz S, Luna B |title=Neurodevelopment and executive function in autism |journal=Dev Psychopathol |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=11030x201332 |year=2008 |pmid=18838033 |doi=10.1017/S0954579408000527 }}</ref> A strength of the theory is predicting stereotyped behavior and narrow interests;<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Hill EL |title=Executive dysfunction in autism |journal=Trends Cogn Sci |year=2004 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=260x201332 |doi=10.1016/j.dr.2004.01.001 |pmid=14697400 }}</ref> two weaknesses are that executive function is hard to measure<ref name=Kenworthy>{{vcite journal |author=Kenworthy L, Yerys BE, Anthony LG, Wallace GL |title=Understanding executive control in autism spectrum disorders in the lab and in the real world |journal=Neuropsychol Rev |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=3200x201338 |year=2008 |pmid=18956239 |doi=10.1007/s11065-008-9077-7 }}</ref> and that executive function deficits have not been found in young autistic children.<ref name=Sigman/> [[Weak central coherence theory]] hypothesizes that a limited ability to see the big picture underlies the central disturbance in autism. One strength of this theory is predicting special talents and peaks in performance in autistic people.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Happ0x00E9 F, Frith U |title=The weak coherence account: detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2006 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=50x201325 |doi=10.1007/s10803-005-0039-0 |pmid=16450045 }}</ref> A related theory0x2014enhanced perceptual functioning0x2014focuses more on the superiority of locally oriented and [[perceptual]] operations in autistic individuals.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2006 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=270x201343 |title=Enhanced perceptual functioning in autism: an update, and eight principles of autistic perception |author=Mottron L, [[Michelle Dawson|Dawson M]], Souli0x00E8res I, Hubert B, Burack J |doi=10.1007/s10803-005-0040-7 |pmid=16453071 }}</ref> These theories map well from the underconnectivity theory of autism. Neither category is satisfactory on its own; social cognition theories poorly address autism's rigid and repetitive behaviors, while the nonsocial theories have difficulty explaining social impairment and communication difficulties.<ref name=HappeTime>{{vcite journal |author=Happ0x00E9 F, Ronald A, [[Robert Plomin|Plomin R]] |title=Time to give up on a single explanation for autism |journal=Nat Neurosci |year=2006 |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=12180x201320 |doi=10.1038/nn1770 |pmid=17001340 }}</ref> A combined theory based on multiple deficits may prove to be more useful.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Dev Rev |year=2007 |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=2240x201360 |title=Cognitive theories of autism |author=Rajendran G, Mitchell P |doi=10.1016/j.dr.2007.02.001 }}</ref> ==Screening== About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months.<ref name=Landa3/> According to an article in the ''Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders'', failure to meet any of the following milestones ''"is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long-term outcome."''<ref name=Filipek/> *No [[babbling]] by 12 months. *No [[Gesture|gesturing]] (pointing, waving bye-bye, etc.) by 12 months. *No single words by 16 months. *No 2-word spontaneous (''not just [[echolalia|echolalic]]'') phrases by 24 months. *''Any'' loss of ''any'' language or social skills, ''at any age''. US and Japanese practice is to [[Screening (medicine)|screen]] all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months, using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast, in the UK, children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. It is not known which approach is more effective.<ref name=Levy/> Screening tools include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT), the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on M-CHAT and its predecessor CHAT on children aged 180x201330 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low [[Sensitivity (tests)|sensitivity]] (many false-negatives) but good [[Specificity (tests)|specificity]] (few false-positives).<ref name=Landa3/> It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Wetherby AM, Brosnan-Maddox S, Peace V, Newton L |title=Validation of the Infant0x2013Toddler Checklist as a broadband screener for autism spectrum disorders from 9 to 24 months of age |journal=Autism |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=4870x2013511 |year=2008 |pmid=18805944 |doi=10.1177/1362361308094501 |pmc=2663025 }}</ref> Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Acta Paediatr |year=2008 |volume=97 |issue=5 |pages=5390x201340 |title=The challenge of screening for autism spectrum disorder in a culturally diverse society |author=Wallis KE, Pinto-Martin J |doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.00720.x |pmid=18373717 }}</ref> Although [[genetic screening]] for autism is generally still impractical, it can be considered in some cases, such as children with neurological symptoms and [[dysmorphic feature]]s.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Lintas C, Persico AM |title=Autistic phenotypes and genetic testing: state-of-the-art for the clinical geneticist |journal=J Med Genet |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=10x20138 |year=2009 |pmid=18728070 |pmc=2603481 |doi=10.1136/jmg.2008.060871 |url=http://jmg.bmj.com/content/46/1/1.long }}</ref> ==Diagnosis== [[Medical diagnosis|Diagnosis]] is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism.<ref name=London>{{vcite journal |journal=Brain Pathol |year=2007 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=4080x201311 |title=The role of the neurobiologist in redefining the diagnosis of autism |author=London E |doi=10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00103.x |pmid=17919126 }}</ref><ref>{{vcite journal |journal=BMJ |year=2003 |volume=327 |issue=7413 |pages=4880x201393 |title=Diagnosis of autism |author=Baird G, Cass H, Slonims V |doi=10.1136/bmj.327.7413.488 |pmid=12946972 |pmc=188387 |url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/327/7413/488 }}</ref> Autism is defined in the [[DSM-IV-TR]] as exhibiting at least six symptoms total, including at least two symptoms of qualitative impairment in social interaction, at least one symptom of qualitative impairment in communication, and at least one symptom of restricted and repetitive behavior. Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language, and persistent preoccupation with parts of objects. Onset must be prior to age three years, with delays or abnormal functioning in either social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by [[Rett syndrome]] or [[childhood disintegrative disorder]].<ref name=DSM-IV-TR-299.00>{{vcite book |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |edition=4th, text revision ([[DSM-IV-TR]]) |author=American Psychiatric Association |year=2000 |isbn=0-89042-025-4 |chapter=Diagnostic criteria for 299.00 Autistic Disorder |chapterurl=http://cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html |publisher=<!--comment to foil Citation bot--> |location=<!--comment to foil Citation bot--> }}</ref> [[ICD-10]] uses essentially the same definition.<ref name=ICD-10-F84.0>{{vcite web |url=http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/?gf80.htm+f84 |year=2007 |accessdate=2009-10-10 |work=ICD-10: International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems: Tenth Revision |publisher=World Health Organization |title=F84. Pervasive developmental disorders }}</ref> Several diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the [[Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised]] (ADI-R) is a semistructured parent interview, and the [[Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule]] (ADOS) uses observation and interaction with the child. The [[Childhood Autism Rating Scale]] (CARS) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children.<ref name=Volkmar/> A [[pediatrician]] commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated [[medical conditions]].<ref name=Dover/> A pediatric [[neuropsychologist]] is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions.<ref name=Kanne>{{vcite journal |author=Kanne SM, Randolph JK, Farmer JE |title=Diagnostic and assessment findings: a bridge to academic planning for children with autism spectrum disorders |journal=Neuropsychol Rev |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=3670x201384 |year=2008 |pmid=18855144 |doi=10.1007/s11065-008-9072-z }}</ref> A [[differential diagnosis]] for ASD at this stage might also consider [[mental retardation]], [[hearing impairment]], and a [[specific language impairment]]<ref name=Dover/> such as [[Landau0x2013Kleffner syndrome]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Dev Med Child Neurol |year=2000 |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=3490x201353 |title=Autistic regression and Landau0x2013Kleffner syndrome: progress or confusion? |title.= |author=Mantovani JF |doi=10.1017/S0012162200210621 |pmid=10855658 }}</ref> The presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as [[Mood disorder|depression]].<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Matson JL, Neal D |title=Cormorbidity: diagnosing comorbid psychiatric conditions |journal=Psychiatr Times |volume=26 |issue=4 |year=2009 |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1403043 }}</ref> [[Clinical genetics]] evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause.<ref name=Caronna/> Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes,<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Genet Med |year=2008 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=40x201312 |title=Genetics evaluation for the etiologic diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders |author=Schaefer GB, Mendelsohn NJ |doi=10.1097/GIM.0b013e31815efdd7 |pmid=18197051 |laysummary=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/96448.php |laysource=Medical News Today |laydate=2008-02-07 }}</ref> consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and [[fragile X]] testing.<ref name=Caronna/> A [[genotype]]-first model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genome's copy number variations.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Ledbetter DH |title=Cytogenetic technology0x2014genotype and phenotype |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=359 |issue=16 |pages=17280x201330 |year=2008 |pmid=18784093 |doi=10.1056/NEJMe0806570 }}</ref> As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues will emerge. Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results, given the complexity of autism's genetics.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet |year=2006 |volume=142C |issue=1 |pages=520x20137 |title=Genetic counseling and ethical issues for autism |author=McMahon WM, Baty BJ, Botkin J |doi=10.1002/ajmg.c.30082 |pmid=16419100 }}</ref> [[Metabolic]] and [[neuroimaging]] tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine.<ref name=Caronna/> ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later.<ref name=Landa3>{{vcite journal |journal=Nat Clin Pract Neurol |year=2008 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=1380x201347 |title=Diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders in the first 3 years of life |author=Landa RJ |doi=10.1038/ncpneuro0731 |pmid=18253102 }}</ref> In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice.<ref name=Dover>{{vcite journal |journal=Arch Dis Child |year=2007 |volume=92 |issue=6 |pages=5400x20135 |title=How to diagnose autism |author=Dover CJ, Le Couteur A |doi=10.1136/adc.2005.086280 |pmid=17515625 }}</ref> A 2009 US study found the average age of formal ASD diagnosis was 5.7 years, far above recommendations, and that 27% of children remained undiagnosed at age 8 years.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Shattuck PT, Durkin M, Maenner M ''et al.'' |author.= |title=Timing of identification among children with an autism spectrum disorder: findings from a population-based surveillance study |journal=J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=4740x201383 |year=2009 |pmid=19318992 |doi=10.1097/CHI.0b013e31819b3848 }}</ref> Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits.<ref>{{vcite web |publisher=National Autistic Society |title=Diagnosis: how can it benefit me as an adult? |title.= |year=2005 |url=http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/polopoly.jsp?a=8018 |accessdate=2008-03-24 }}</ref> Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis are problems in marginal cases, and much of the recent increase in the number of reported ASD cases is likely due to changes in diagnostic practices. The increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has given providers incentives to diagnose ASD, resulting in some overdiagnosis of children with uncertain symptoms. Conversely, the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Shattuck PT, Grosse SD |title=Issues related to the diagnosis and treatment of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year=2007 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=1290x201335 |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20143 |pmid=17563895 }}</ref> It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the [[visually impaired]], partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or [[blindism]]s.<ref>{{vcite journal |title=Visual impairment and autism: current questions and future research |author=Cass H |journal=Autism |year=1998 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=1170x201338 |doi=10.1177/1362361398022002 }}</ref> ==Management== {{main|Autism therapies}} [[File:Opening a window to the autistic brain.jpg|thumb|alt=A young child points, in front of a woman who smiles and points in the same direction.|A three-year-old with autism points to fish in an aquarium, as part of an experiment on the effect of intensive shared-attention training on language development.<ref name=Powell/>]] The main goals when treating children with autism are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs.<ref name=CCD/> Families and the educational system are the main resources for treatment.<ref name=Levy/> Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about [[efficacy]].<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Ospina MB, Krebs Seida J, Clark B ''et al.'' |author.= |title=Behavioural and developmental interventions for autism spectrum disorder: a clinical systematic review |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=3 |issue=11 |pages=e3755 |year=2008 |pmid=19015734 |pmc=2582449 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0003755 |url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0003755 }}</ref> Although many [[psychosocial]] interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of [[systematic review]]s of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Krebs Seida J, Ospina MB, Karkhaneh M, Hartling L, Smith V, Clark B |title=Systematic reviews of psychosocial interventions for autism: an umbrella review |journal=Dev Med Child Neurol |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=950x2013104 |year=2009 |pmid=19191842 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8749.2008.03211.x }}</ref> Intensive, sustained [[special education]] programs and [[behavior therapy]] early in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills,<ref name=CCD>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2007 |volume=120 |issue=5 |pages=11620x201382 |title=Management of children with autism spectrum disorders |author=Myers SM, Johnson CP, Council on Children with Disabilities |doi=10.1542/peds.2007-2362 |pmid=17967921 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/120/5/1162 |laysummary=http://aap.org/advocacy/releases/oct07autism.htm |laysource=AAP |laydate=2007-10-29 }}</ref> and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors;<ref name=Rogers>{{vcite journal |journal=J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol |year=2008 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=80x201338 |title=Evidence-based comprehensive treatments for early autism |author=Rogers SJ, Vismara LA |doi=10.1080/15374410701817808 |pmid=18444052 }}</ref> claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated.<ref name=HowlinCharman>{{vcite journal |author=Howlin P, Magiati I, Charman T |title=Systematic review of early intensive behavioral interventions for children with autism |journal=Am J Intellect Dev Disabil |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=230x201341 |year=2009 |pmid=19143460 |doi=10.1352/2009.114:23-41 }}</ref> Available approaches include [[applied behavior analysis]] (ABA), developmental models, [[TEACCH|structured teaching]], [[speech and language therapy]], [[social skills]] therapy, and [[occupational therapy]].<ref name=CCD/> Educational interventions can be effective to varying degrees in most children: intensive ABA treatment has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing global functioning in preschool children<ref name=Eikeseth>{{vcite journal |journal=Res Dev Disabil |year=2009 |title=Outcome of comprehensive psycho-educational interventions for young children with autism |author=Eikeseth S |doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2008.02.003 |pmid=18385012 |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=1580x201378 }}</ref> and is well-established for improving intellectual performance of young children.<ref name=Rogers/> Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided.<ref name=Kanne/> It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up,<ref name=Rogers/> and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2003 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=1310x201340 |title=Effects of a model treatment approach on adults with autism |author=Van Bourgondien ME, Reichle NC, [[Eric Schopler|Schopler E]] |doi=10.1023/A:1022931224934 |pmid=12757352 }}</ref> The appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Topics in Language Disorders |year=2003 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=1160x2013133 |title=Inclusion of Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders in General Education Settings |authors= Simpson RL, de Boer-Ott SR, Smith-Myles B|url=http://www.nursingcenter.com/pdf.asp?AID=520301 }}</ref> Many medications are used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails.<ref name=Rapin/><ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Harv Rev Psychiatry |year=2008 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=970x2013112 |title=Pharmacological treatment options for autism spectrum disorders in children and adolescents |author=Leskovec TJ, Rowles BM, Findling RL |doi=10.1080/10673220802075852 |pmid=18415882 }}</ref> More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed [[psychoactive drug]]s or [[anticonvulsant]]s, with the most common drug classes being [[antidepressant]]s, [[stimulant]]s, and [[antipsychotic]]s.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol |year=2007 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=3480x201355 |title=Medication use among children with autism spectrum disorders |author=Oswald DP, Sonenklar NA |doi=10.1089/cap.2006.17303 |pmid=17630868 }}</ref> Aside from antipsychotics,<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Clin Invest |year=2008 |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=60x201314 |title=Antipsychotics in the treatment of autism |author=Posey DJ, Stigler KA, Erickson CA, McDougle CJ |doi=10.1172/JCI32483 |pmid=18172517 |pmc=2171144 |url=http://www.jci.org/articles/view/32483/version/1 }}</ref> there is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD.<ref>Lack of research on drug treatments: *{{vcite journal |journal=Aust Fam Physician |year=2007 |volume=36 |issue=9 |pages=7410x20134 |title=Children and autism0x2014part 10x2014recognition and pharmacological management |author=Angley M, Young R, Ellis D, Chan W, McKinnon R |pmid=17915375 |url=http://www.racgp.org.au/afp/200709/200709angley.pdf |format=PDF }} *{{vcite journal |journal=Autism |year=2007 |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=3350x201348 |title=Systematic review of the effectiveness of pharmacological treatments for adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder |author=Broadstock M, Doughty C, Eggleston M |doi=10.1177/1362361307078132 |pmid=17656398 }}</ref> A person with ASD may respond atypically to medications, the medications can have [[Adverse effect (medicine)|adverse effects]],<ref name=CCD/> and no known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Novartis Found Symp |year=2003 |volume=251 |pages=2350x201344; discussion 2450x20139, 2810x201397 |title=Why have drug treatments been so disappointing? |title.= |author=Buitelaar JK |doi=10.1002/0470869380.ch14 |pmid=14521196 }}</ref> Experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function,<ref name=Walsh/><ref name="pmid18093519"/> suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism.<ref name=Betancur/><ref name="pmid20303363">{{cite journal |author = D0x00F6len G, Carpenter RL, Ocain TD, Bear MF | title = Mechanism-based approaches to treating fragile X | journal = Pharmacol Ther | volume = 127 | issue = 1 | pages = 780x201393| year = 2010 | pmid = 20303363 | doi = 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2010.02.008}}</ref> Although many [[Alternative therapies for developmental and learning disabilities|alternative therapies and interventions]] are available, few are supported by scientific studies.<ref name=Sigman/><ref>Lack of support for interventions: *{{vcite journal |journal=Dev Med Child Neurol |year=2005 |volume=47 |issue=7 |pages=4930x20139 |title=Autism interventions: a critical update |author=Francis K |doi=10.1017/S0012162205000952 |pmid=15991872 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/production/action/cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid=313204 |format=PDF }} *{{vcite journal |author=Levy SE, Hyman SL |title=Complementary and alternative medicine treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders |journal=Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=8030x201320, ix |year=2008 |pmid=18775371 |pmc=2597185 |doi=10.1016/j.chc.2008.06.004 }} *{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2008 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=3530x201361 |title=Social skills interventions for children with Asperger's syndrome or high-functioning autism: a review and recommendations |author=Rao PA, Beidel DC, Murray MJ |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0402-4 |pmid=17641962 }} </ref> Treatment approaches have little empirical support in [[Quality of life|quality-of-life]] contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance.<ref name=Burgess/> Scientific evidence appears to matter less to service providers than program marketing, training availability, and parent requests.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Focus Autism Other Dev Disabl |year=2005 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=660x201379 |title=Early intervention practices for children with autism: descriptions from community providers |author=Stahmer AC, Collings NM, Palinkas LA |pmid=16467905 |pmc=1350798 |doi=10.1177/10883576050200020301 }}</ref> Some alternative treatments may place the child at risk. A 2008 study found that compared to their peers, autistic boys have significantly thinner bones if on [[Casein#Casein-free_diet|casein-free diets]];<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2008 |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=8480x201356 |title=Reduced bone cortical thickness in boys with autism or autism spectrum disorder |author=Hediger ML, England LJ, Molloy CA, Yu KF, Manning-Courtney P, Mills JL |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0453-6 |pmid=17879151 |laysummary=http://www.nih.gov/news/health/jan2008/nichd-29.htm |laysource=NIH News |laydate=2008-01-29 }}</ref> in 2005, botched [[chelation therapy]] killed a five-year-old child with autism.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2006 |volume=118 |issue=2 |pages=e5340x20136 |title=Deaths resulting from hypocalcemia after administration of edetate disodium: 20030x20132005 |author=Brown MJ, Willis T, Omalu B, Leiker R |doi=10.1542/peds.2006-0858 |pmid=16882789 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/118/2/e534 }}</ref> Treatment is expensive; indirect costs are more so. For someone born in 2000, a US study estimated an average lifetime cost of ${{formatprice|{{inflation|US|3160384|2003}}}} ([[net present value]] in {{CURRENTYEAR}} dollars, inflation-adjusted from 2003 estimate),{{inflation-fn|US}} with about 10% [[medical care]], 30% extra education and other care, and 60% lost economic productivity.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med |year=2007 |volume=161 |issue=4 |pages=3430x20139 |title=The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism |author=Ganz ML |pmid=17404130 |url=http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/161/4/343 |laysummary=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/2006-releases/press04252006.html |laysource=Harvard School of Public Health |laydate=2006-04-25 |doi=10.1001/archpedi.161.4.343 }}</ref> Publicly supported programs are often inadequate or inappropriate for a given child, and unreimbursed out-of-pocket medical or therapy expenses are associated with likelihood of family financial problems;<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Fam Econ Iss |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=2470x201364 |doi=10.1007/s10834-007-9059-6 |title=Financial issues associated with having a child with autism |author=Sharpe DL, Baker DL }}</ref> one 2008 US study found a 14% average loss of annual income in families of children with ASD,<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2008 |volume=121 |issue=4 |pages=e8210x20136 |title=Association of childhood autism spectrum disorders and loss of family income |author=Montes G, Halterman JS |doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1594 |pmid=18381511 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/121/4/e821 }}</ref> and a related study found that ASD is associated with higher probability that [[child care]] problems will greatly affect parental employment.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2008 |volume=122 |issue=1 |pages=e2020x20138 |title=Child care problems and employment among families with preschool-aged children with autism in the United States |author=Montes G, Halterman JS |doi=10.1542/peds.2007-3037 |pmid=18595965 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/122/1/e202 }}</ref> US states increasingly require private health insurance to cover autism services, shifting costs from publicly funded education programs to privately funded health insurance.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Manag Care |year=2008 |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=350x20136, 39 |title=States increasingly mandate special autism services |author=Reinke T |pmid=18777788 |url=http://managedcaremag.com/archives/0808/0808.autism.html }}</ref> After childhood, key treatment issues include residential care, job training and placement, sexuality, social skills, and [[estate planning]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |year=2005 |volume=66 |issue=Suppl 10 |pages=380x201345 |title=Treatment planning for patients with autism spectrum disorders |author=Aman MG |pmid=16401149 }}</ref> ==Prognosis== There is no known cure.<ref name=Levy/><ref name=CCD/> Children recover occasionally, so that they lose their diagnosis of ASD;<ref name=Helt/> this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. It is not known how often recovery happens;<ref name=Rogers/> reported rates in unselected samples of children with ASD have ranged from 3% to 25%.<ref name=Helt>{{vcite journal |author=Helt M, Kelley E, Kinsbourne M ''et al.'' |author.= |title=Can children with autism recover? if so, how? |title.= |journal=Neuropsychol Rev |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=3390x201366 |year=2008 |pmid=19009353 |doi=10.1007/s11065-008-9075-9 }}</ref> Most autistic children can acquire language by age 5 or younger, though a few have developed communication skills in later years.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Pickett E, Pullara O, O'Grady J, Gordon B |title=Speech acquisition in older nonverbal individuals with autism: a review of features, methods, and prognosis |journal=Cogn Behav Neurol |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=10x201321 |year=2009 |pmid=19372766 |doi=10.1097/WNN.0b013e318190d185 }}</ref> Most children with autism lack [[social support]], meaningful relationships, future employment opportunities or [[Self-determination theory|self-determination]].<ref name=Burgess>{{vcite journal |author=Burgess AF, Gutstein SE |year=2007 |title=Quality of life for people with autism: raising the standard for evaluating successful outcomes |journal=Child Adolesc Ment Health |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=800x20136 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-3588.2006.00432.x |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118546008/HTMLSTART}}</ref> Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age.<ref name=Rapin/> Few high-quality studies address long-term [[prognosis]]. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=2340x201347 |year=2004 |title=Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism |author=Seltzer MM, Shattuck P, Abbeduto L, Greenberg JS |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20038 |pmid=15666341 }}</ref> Acquiring language before age six, having an [[IQ]] above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; [[independent living]] is unlikely with severe autism.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Tidmarsh L, Volkmar FR |title=Diagnosis and epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Can J Psychiatry |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=5170x201325 |year=2003 |pmid=14574827 |url=http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2003/september/tidmarsh.asp }}</ref> A 2004 British study of 68 adults who were diagnosed before 1980 as autistic children with IQ above 50 found that 12% achieved a high level of independence as adults, 10% had some friends and were generally in work but required some support, 19% had some independence but were generally living at home and needed considerable support and supervision in daily living, 46% needed specialist residential provision from facilities specializing in ASD with a high level of support and very limited autonomy, and 12% needed high-level hospital care.<ref name=Howlin>{{vcite journal |author=Howlin P, Goode S, Hutton J, Rutter M |title=Adult outcome for children with autism |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |year=2004 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=2120x201329 |pmid=14982237 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00215.x }}</ref> A 2005 Swedish study of 78 adults that did not exclude low IQ found worse prognosis; for example, only 4% achieved independence.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2005 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=3510x201360 |title=Autism after adolescence: population-based 13- to 22-year follow-up study of 120 individuals with autism diagnosed in childhood |author=Billstedt E, Gillberg C, Gillberg C |doi=10.1007/s10803-005-3302-5 |pmid=16119476 }}</ref> A 2008 Canadian study of 48 young adults diagnosed with ASD as preschoolers found outcomes ranging through poor (46%), fair (32%), good (17%), and very good (4%); 56% of these young adults had been employed at some point during their lives, mostly in volunteer, sheltered or [[part-time]] work.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2008 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=7390x201347 |title=Young adult outcome of autism spectrum disorders |author=Eaves LC, Ho HH |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0441-x |pmid=17764027 }}</ref> Changes in diagnostic practice and increased availability of effective early intervention make it unclear whether these findings can be generalized to recently diagnosed children.<ref name=Newschaffer/> ==Epidemiology== {{Main|Epidemiology of autism}} [[File:US-autism-6-17-1996-2007.png|thumb|left|alt=Bar chart versus time. The graph rises steadily from 1996 to 2007, from about 0.7 to about 5.3. The trend curves slightly upward.|Reports of autism cases per 1,000 children grew dramatically in the US from 1996 to 2007. It is unknown how much, if any, growth came from changes in autism's [[prevalence]].]] Most recent [[review]]s tend to estimate a prevalence of 10x20132 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD;<ref name=Newschaffer>{{vcite journal |author=Newschaffer CJ, Croen LA, Daniels J ''et al.'' |author.= |title=The epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Annu Rev Public Health |year=2007 |volume=28 |pages=2350x201358 |pmid=17367287 |doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.28.021406.144007 |url=http://idea.library.drexel.edu/bitstream/1860/2632/1/2006175339.pdf |format=PDF }}</ref> because of inadequate data, these numbers may underestimate ASD's true prevalence.<ref name=Caronna>{{vcite journal |journal=Arch Dis Child |year=2008 |volume=93 |issue=6 |pages=5180x201323 |title=Autism spectrum disorders: clinical and research frontiers |author=Caronna EB, Milunsky JM, Tager-Flusberg H |doi=10.1136/adc.2006.115337 |pmid=18305076 }}</ref> [[PDD-NOS]]'s prevalence has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and [[childhood disintegrative disorder]] at 0.02 per 1,000.<ref name=Fombonne-2009>{{vcite journal |author=Fombonne E |title=Epidemiology of pervasive developmental disorders |journal=Pediatr Res |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=5910x20138 |year=2009 |pmid=19218885 |doi=10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e7203 }}</ref> The number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and early 2000s. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness,<ref name=Fombonne-2009/><ref>{{vcite journal |author=Wing L, Potter D |title=The epidemiology of autistic spectrum disorders: is the prevalence rising? |title.= |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |volume=8 |issue=3 |year=2002 |pages=1510x201361 |pmid=12216059 |doi=10.1002/mrdd.10029 }}</ref> though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out.<ref name=Rutter>{{vcite journal |author=Rutter M |title=Incidence of autism spectrum disorders: changes over time and their meaning |journal=Acta Paediatr |volume=94 |issue=1 |year=2005 |pages=20x201315 |pmid=15858952 |doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2005.tb01779.x }}</ref> The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased;<ref name=Fombonne-2009/> a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics.<ref name=Szpir/> Boys are at higher risk for ASD than girls. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with mental retardation and more than 5.5:1 without.<ref name=Newschaffer/> Although the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy-related risk factor as a cause of autism, the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent, and with diabetes, bleeding, and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Gardener H, Spiegelman D, Buka SL |title=Prenatal risk factors for autism: comprehensive meta-analysis |journal=Br J Psychiatry |volume=195 |issue=1 |pages=70x201314 |year=2009 |pmid=19567888 |doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051672 }}</ref> The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm, and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism.<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> Most professionals believe that race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Bertoglio K, Hendren RL |title=New developments in autism |journal=Psychiatr Clin North Am |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=10x201314 |year=2009 |pmid=19248913 |doi=10.1016/j.psc.2008.10.004 }}</ref> Several other conditions are common in children with autism.<ref name=Levy/> They include: *'''[[Genetic disorder]]s'''. About 100x201315% of autism cases have an identifiable [[Mendelian]] (single-gene) condition, [[chromosome abnormality]], or other genetic syndrome,<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Folstein SE, Rosen-Sheidley B |title=Genetics of autism: complex aetiology for a heterogeneous disorder |journal=Nat Rev Genet |year=2001 |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages=9430x201355 |doi=10.1038/35103559 |pmid=11733747 }}</ref> and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Brain Dev |year=2007 |volume=29 |issue=5 |pages=2570x201372 |title=Childhood autism and associated comorbidities |author=Zafeiriou DI, Ververi A, Vargiami E |doi=10.1016/j.braindev.2006.09.003 |pmid=17084999 }}</ref> *'''[[Mental retardation]]'''. The fraction of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for mental retardation has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing autistic intelligence.<ref>{{vcite book |chapter=Learning in autism |author=Dawson M, Mottron L, Gernsbacher MA |title=Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference |volume=2 |pages=7590x201372 |editor=Byrne JH, editor-in-chief, Roediger HL 3rd, volume editor |publisher=Academic Press |year=2008 |doi=10.1016/B978-012370509-9.00152-2 |isbn=0-12-370504-5 |chapterurl=http://psych.wisc.edu/lang/pdf/Dawson_AutisticLearning.pdf |chapterformat=PDF }}</ref> For ASD other than autism, the association with mental retardation is much weaker.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E |title=Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children |journal=JAMA |year=2001 |volume=285 |issue=24 |pages=30930x20139 |pmid=11427137 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/285/24/3093 |doi=10.1001/jama.285.24.3093 }}</ref> *'''[[Anxiety disorder]]s''' are common among children with ASD; there are no firm data, but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11% to 84%. Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself, or are hard to distinguish from ASD's symptoms.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=White SW, Oswald D, Ollendick T, Scahill L |title=Anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders |journal=Clin Psychol Rev |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=2160x201329 |year=2009 |pmid=19223098 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2009.01.003 |pmc=2692135 }}</ref> *'''[[Epilepsy]]''', with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of [[language disorder]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatr Res |year=2009 |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=5990x2013606 |title=The role of epilepsy and epileptiform EEGs in autism spectrum disorders |author=Spence SJ, Schneider MT |doi=10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e7168 |pmid=19454962 |pmc=2692092 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2692092/ }}</ref> *Several '''[[metabolic defect]]s''', such as [[phenylketonuria]], are associated with autistic symptoms.<ref name=Manzi>{{vcite journal |journal=J Child Neurol |year=2008 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=3070x201314 |title=Autism and metabolic diseases |author=Manzi B, Loizzo AL, Giana G, Curatolo P |doi=10.1177/0883073807308698 |pmid=18079313 }}</ref> *'''[[Minor physical anomalies]]''' are significantly increased in the autistic population.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Mol Psychiatry |year=2010 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=3000x20137 |title=Minor physical anomalies in autism: a meta-analysis |author=Ozgen HM, Hop JW, Hox JJ, Beemer FA, van Engeland H |doi=10.1038/mp.2008.75 |pmid=18626481 }}</ref> *'''Preempted diagnoses'''. Although the DSM-IV rules out concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for [[ADHD]], [[Tourette syndrome]], and other of these conditions are often present and these [[Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders|comorbid diagnoses]] are increasingly accepted.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Eur J Pediatr |year=2008 |title=What's new in autism? |title.= |author=Steyaert JG, De La Marche W |doi=10.1007/s00431-008-0764-4 |pmid=18597114 |volume=167 |issue=10 |pages=10910x2013101 }}</ref> *'''Sleep problems''' affect about two-thirds of individuals with ASD at some point in childhood. These most commonly include symptoms of [[insomnia]] such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent [[middle-of-the-night insomnia|nocturnal awakenings]], and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diagnosis.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Richdale AL, Schreck KA |title=Sleep problems in autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, nature, & possible biopsychosocial aetiologies |journal=Sleep Med Rev |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=4030x201311 |year=2009 |pmid=19398354 |doi=10.1016/j.smrv.2009.02.003 }}</ref> ==History== {{see|History of Asperger syndrome|Sociological and cultural aspects of autism}} [[File:Leo-Kanner.jpeg|thumb|upright|alt=Head and shoulders of a man in his early 60s in coat and tie, facing slightly to his right. He is balding and has a serious but slightly smiling expression.|[[Leo Kanner]] introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in 1943.]] A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The ''[[Table Talk (Luther)|Table Talk]]'' of [[Martin Luther]], compiled by his notetaker, Mathesius, contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Autism |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=130x201323 |year=1997 |doi=10.1177/1362361397011004 |title=The history of ideas on autism: legends, myths and reality |author=[[Lorna Wing|Wing L]]}}</ref> Luther reportedly thought the boy was a soulless mass of flesh possessed by the devil, and suggested that he be suffocated, although a later critic has cast doubt on the veracity of this report.<ref>{{vcite web |author=Miles M |year=2005 |title=Martin Luther and childhood disability in 16th century Germany: what did he write? what did he say? |title.= |publisher=Independent Living Institute |url=http://www.independentliving.org/docs7/miles2005b.html |accessdate=2008-12-23 }}</ref> The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of Hugh Blair of Borgue, as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance.<ref>{{vcite book |author=Houston R, Frith U |title=Autism in History: The Case of Hugh Blair of Borgue |year=2000 |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=0-631-22089-5 }}</ref> The [[Wild Boy of Aveyron]], a [[feral child]] caught in 1798, showed several signs of autism; the medical student [[Jean Marc Gaspard Itard|Jean Itard]] treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation.<ref name=Wolff>{{vcite journal |journal=Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry |year=2004 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=2010x20138 |title=The history of autism |author=Wolff S |doi=10.1007/s00787-004-0363-5 |pmid=15365889 }}</ref> The [[New Latin]] word ''autismus'' (English translation ''autism'') was coined by the [[Swiss]] psychiatrist [[Eugen Bleuler]] in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of [[schizophrenia]]. He derived it from the Greek word ''aut0x00F3s'' (0x03B10x1F500x03C40x03CC0x03C2, meaning ''self''), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance".<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Kuhn R; tr. Cahn CH |title=Eugen Bleuler's concepts of psychopathology |journal=Hist Psychiatry |volume=15 |issue=3 |year=2004 |pages=3610x20136 |doi=10.1177/0957154X04044603 |pmid=15386868 }} The quote is a translation of Bleuler's 1910 original.</ref> The word ''autism'' first took its modern sense in 1938 when [[Hans Asperger]] of the [[Vienna General Hospital|Vienna University Hospital]] adopted Bleuler's terminology ''autistic psychopaths'' in a lecture in German about [[child psychology]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Wien Klin Wochenschr |year=1938 |volume=51 |pages=13140x20137 |trans_title=The psychically abnormal child |author=[[Hans Asperger|Asperger H]] |language=German }}</ref> Asperger was investigating an ASD now known as [[Asperger syndrome]], though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981.<ref name=Wolff/> [[Leo Kanner]] of the [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] first used ''autism'' in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities.<ref name=Kanner1943>{{vcite journal |author=[[Leo Kanner|Kanner L]] |title=Autistic disturbances of affective contact |journal=Nerv Child |volume=2 |pages=2170x201350 |year=1943 }} Reprinted in {{vcite journal |year=1968 |journal=Acta Paedopsychiatr |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=1000x201336 |pmid=4880460 |author=<!-- Pacify Citation bot. --> |title=<!-- Pacify Citation bot. --> }}</ref> Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders.<ref name=HappeTime/> It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger.<ref name=Lyons>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2007 |volume=37 |issue=10 |pages=20220x20133 |title=Asperger (19060x20131980) and Kanner (18940x20131981), the two pioneers of autism |author=Lyons V, Fitzgerald M |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0383-3 |pmid=17922179 }}</ref> Kanner's reuse of ''autism'' led to decades of confused terminology like ''infantile schizophrenia'', and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to "[[refrigerator mother]]s". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome by demonstrating that it is lifelong, distinguishing it from mental retardation and schizophrenia and from other developmental disorders, and demonstrating the benefits of involving parents in active programs of therapy.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Can J Psychiatry |year=2003 |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=5030x20135 |title=Modern views of autism |author=Fombonne E |pmid=14574825 |url=http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2003/september/guesteditorial.asp }}</ref> As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism; now it is thought to be one of the most heritable of all psychiatric conditions.<ref>{{vcite book |chapter=Genetic epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders |author=[[Peter Szatmari|Szatmari P]], Jones MB |pages=1570x201378 |title=Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders |edition=2nd |editor=Volkmar FR |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=0-521-54957-4 }}</ref> Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have deeply affected how we view ASD,<ref name=Wolff/> parents continue to feel [[social stigma]] in situations where their autistic children's behaviors are perceived negatively by others,<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2008 |title=Adult attitudes toward behaviors of a six-year-old boy with autism |author=Chambres P, Auxiette C, Vansingle C, Gil S |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0519-5 |pmid=18297387 |volume=38 |issue=7 |pages=13200x20137 }}</ref> and many [[primary care physician]]s and [[medical specialist]]s still express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2005 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=3230x201330 |title=A survey of autism knowledge in a health care setting |author=Heidgerken AD, Geffken G, Modi A, Frakey L |doi=10.1007/s10803-005-3298-x |pmid=16119473 }}</ref> The [[Internet]] has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find so hard to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Biever C |title=Web removes social barriers for those with autism |journal=New Sci |issue=2610 |pages=260x20137 |date=2007 |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19426106.100 }}</ref> [[Sociological and cultural aspects of autism]] have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that autism is simply another way of being.<ref name=Silverman>{{vcite journal |journal=Biosocieties |year=2008 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=3250x201341 |title=Fieldwork on another planet: social science perspectives on the autism spectrum |author=Silverman C |doi=10.1017/S1745855208006236 }}</ref><ref>{{vcite news |author=Harmon A |title=How about not 'curing' us, some autistics are pleading |date=2004-12-20 |work=New York Times |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/20/health/20autism.html }}</ref> {{clear}} ==References== {{reflist|colwidth=35em}} ==External links== <!--==========================({{NoMoreLinks}})============================ | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA | | IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS NOR SHOULD IT BE USED FOR ADVERTISING. | | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | | | | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link | | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | =========================({{NoMoreLinks}})=============================--> {{Commons category|Autism}} {{portal|Pervasive Developmental Disorders}} * {{dmoz|Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Neurodevelopmental/Autism_Spectrum}} {{featured article}} {{Pervasive developmental disorders}} {{Mental and behavioural disorders|selected = childhood}} [[Category:Autism| ]] [[Category:Pervasive developmental disorders]] [[Category:Communication disorders]] [[Category:Neurological disorders]] [[Category:Neurological disorders in children]] [[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ICD]] {{Link GA|lt}} {{Link FA|eu}} {{Link FA|hr}} {{Link FA|id}} [[af:Outisme]] [[ar:0x062A0x06480x062D0x062F]] [[az:Autizm]] [[bn:0x09860x09A40x09CD0x09AE0x09B80x09820x09AC0x09C30x09A40x09BF]] [[be:0x04100x045E0x04420x044B0x04370x043C]] [[be-x-old:0x04100x045E0x04420x044B0x04370x043C]] [[bs:Autizam]] [[br:Aotism]] [[bg:0x04100x04430x04420x04380x04370x044A0x043C]] [[ca:Autisme]] [[cs:Autismus]] [[cy:Awtistiaeth]] [[da:Autisme]] [[de:Autismus]] [[dv:0x07870x07AF0x07930x07A80x07920x07A60x07890x07B0]] [[et:Autism]] [[el:0x03910x03C50x03C40x03B90x03C30x03BC0x03CC0x03C2]] [[es:Autismo]] [[eo:A0x016Dtismo]] [[eu:Autismo]] [[fa:0x062F0x06310x062E0x06480x062F0x06450x06270x06460x062F0x06AF0x06CC]] [[fr:Autisme]] [[ga:Uathachas]] [[gl:Autismo]] [[ko:0xC7900xD3D00xC99D]] [[hy:0x05310x05780x05820x057F0x056B0x05660x0574]] [[hi:0x09110x091F0x093F0x091C0x093C0x094D0x092E (0x09060x09240x094D0x092E0x09350x093F0x092E0x094B0x0939)]] [[hr:Autizam]] [[io:Autismo]] [[id:Autisme]] [[ia:Autismo]] [[it:Autismo]] [[he:0x05D00x05D50x05D80x05D90x05D60x05DD 0x05E70x05DC0x05D00x05E10x05D9]] [[jv:Autisme]] [[ka:0x10D00x10E30x10E20x10D80x10D60x10DB0x10D8]] [[sw:Autism]] [[ku:Ot0x00EEzm]] [[la:Autismus]] [[lv:Autisms]] [[lt:Autizmas]] [[jbo:ka sezga'o]] [[hu:Autizmus]] [[mk:0x04100x04430x04420x04380x04370x04300x043C]] [[ml:0x0D130x0D1F0x0D4D0x0D1F0x0D3F0x0D380x0D02]] [[ms:Autisme]] [[nl:Autisme]] [[ja:0x81EA0x95890x75C7]] [[no:Autisme]] [[pl:Autyzm dzieci0x0119cy]] [[pt:Autismo]] [[ro:Autism]] [[ru:0x04100x04430x04420x04380x04370x043C]] [[sq:Autizmi]] [[simple:Autism]] [[sk:Autizmus (uzavretos0x0165)]] [[sl:Avtizem]] [[sr:Autizam]] [[sh:Autizam]] [[fi:Autismi]] [[sv:Autism]] [[tl:Autismo]] [[ta:0x0BAE0x0BA40x0BBF0x0BAF0x0BBF0x0BB10x0BC10x0B950x0BCD0x0B950x0BAE0x0BCD]] [[th:0x0E420x0E230x0E040x0E2D0x0E2D0x0E170x0E340x0E0B0x0E360x0E21]] [[tr:Otizm]] [[uk:0x04100x04430x04420x04380x04370x043C]] [[vi:T0x1EF1 k0x1EF7]] [[wa:Otisse]] [[bat-smg:Aut0x0117zmos]] [[zh:0x81EA0x95890x75C7]] 27 74467016 2006-09-08T04:18:56Z Rory096 750223 cat rd #REDIRECT [[History of Albania]] {{R from CamelCase}} 29 74466817 2006-09-08T04:17:12Z Rory096 750223 cat rd #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Albania]] {{R from CamelCase}} 30 74467061 2006-09-08T04:19:17Z Rory096 750223 cat rd #REDIRECT [[As_We_May_Think]] {{R from CamelCase}} 33 197516257 # end of sample